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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



AND 



COMPOSITION 

IN WHICH THE SCIENCE OF THE ^ANGUAGE IS 
MADE TRIBUTARY TO THE ART OF EXPRESSION 



A COURSE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY 

GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO E VERY-DAY 

USE IN TEE SCHOOL-ROOM 



BY 

ALONZO REED, A.M. 

Formerly Instructor in English Grammar in the 
Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn 

AND 

BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D. 

Professor op the English Language and Literature in the 
Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn 



NEW YORK 
MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO., Publishers 
1906 



r £\\H 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two Cortes Received 
MAR 14 906 
- Cepyrl«M Entry 

CLASS 0~ ' XXc, No. 

IM- o 1 S o 

COPY B. 



bC 



Copyright, 1906 
By Frances M. Reed and Brainerd Kellosgi 



PREFACE. 

The plan of "English Grammar and Composition" will perhaps be 
better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with 
which this work is brought into competition. 

Method of One Class of Text-books. — In one class are those 
that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order 
of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give 
large space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing 
of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal 
word parsing, — work of which a considerable portion is merely the 
invention of grammarians, and has little value in determining the 
pupa's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties. 
This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method. 

Method of Another Class of Text-books. — In another class are 
those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, 
Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and 
General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who 
completes these books will huve gained something by practice and will 
have picked up some scraps of knowledge ; but his information will be 
vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training 
which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford. A text-book is of 
value just so far as it presents a clear, logical development of its 
subject. It must present its science or its art as a natural growth, 
otherwise there is no apology for its being. 

The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words. — It 
is the plan of this book to trace with easy steps the natural develop- 
ment of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to 



vi Preface. 

descend to the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin 
with details and to disregard the higher unities, without which the 
details are scarcely intelligible. The part of speech to which a word 
belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence, and inflec- 
tions simply mark the offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil 
has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations 
of words as elements of an organic whole, his knowledge of the parts 
of speech is of little value. It is not because he cannot conjugate the 
verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as " How 
many sounds have each of the vowels ?" "Five years' interest are 
due." "She is older than me" He probably would not say "each 
have," "interest are" "me am." One thoroughly familiar with the 
structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly 
the lew inflectional forms in English. 

The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. — 
Through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent 
knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical 
forms, but we discover the laws of discourse in general. In the 
sentence the student should find the law of unity, of continuity, of 
proportion, of order. All good writing consists of good sentences 
properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of dis- 
course, it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence. 
He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in 
their proper relation ; he should know the exact function of every 
element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. 
He should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, 
that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the 
difficulty and the remedy for it. 

The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation. — 
The laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis 
of the sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has 
acquired a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation 



Preface. vii 

of a foreign language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a 
sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized 
words, how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of 
words is in a foreign tongue ! A study of the parts of speech is a far 
less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and 
conjugations in English do not conform to those of other languages. 
Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to 
appreciate these facts. 

The Study of the Sentence for Discipline. — As a means of 
discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis 
of the sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the 
sentence, and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the 
expression to the parts of the thought, is to learn to think. It has 
been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the 
construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided 
Advantage in mental power. These results can be obtained only by 
systematic and persistent work. Experienced teachers understand 
that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course 
and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge 
that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by 
memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To 
compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering 
terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" and " com- 
pound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few 
simple functions, is grossly unjust ; it is a substitution of form for 
content, of words for x ideas. 

Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence. — Teachers 
familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around 
the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, 
in the following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. 
But, when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this 
work is the sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their 



viii Preface. 

natural order of sequence. When, through. the development of the 
sentence, all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered, 
the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and 
subdivide the parts of speech. The inflection of words, being distinct 
from their classification, makes a separate division of the work. If 
the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse, we should not 
here depart from long-established precedent. 

Sentences in Groups — Paragraphs. — In tracing the growth of 
the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each ele- 
ment, as it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached 
sentences, chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. 
These compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he 
gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected to 
be used at intervals, with questions and suggestions to enforce prin- 
ciples already presented, and to prepare the way informally for the 
regular lessons that follow. The lessons on these selections are, 
however, made to take a much wider scope. They lead the pupil 
to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs, and 
how paragraphs are related to each other ; they also lead him on to 
discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the sev- 
eral models presented. 

The Use of the Diagram. — In written analysis, the simple map, 
or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to 
present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every 
clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every 
word in the phrase — to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, 
with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations. It 
is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a 
single view, see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many 
parts performing various functions and standing in various relations. 
Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing 
all these things by piecemeal or in succession. 



Preface. ix 

But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, 
they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. 
The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the 
diagrams. 

The Objections to the Diagram. — The fact that the pictorial 
diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and 
relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. 
It is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through 
the literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what 
the literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefi- 
nitely, so long as the logical relations are kept clear. 

The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is 
not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral 
analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most 
searching examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with 
every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point. 

The Abuse of the Diagram. — Analysis by diagram often becomes 
so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to 
be overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. 
When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should 
be used only for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are 
long, only for the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and 
written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. 
When the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped. 



LESSON 1. 

A TALK ON LANGUAGE. 

Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a 
grammar or from a book of any kind — a language that we come by 
naturally, and use without thinking of it. 

It is a universal language, and consequently needs no interpreter. 
People of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it ; even the brute 
animals in some measure understand it. 

This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones; 
the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face ; the 
language of gestures and postures. 

The child's cry tells of its wants ; its sob, of grief ; its scream, of 
pain ; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise 
and his nose in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in 
fear, makes a fist in anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply 
by the tone in which he speaks. 

But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to com- 
municate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to 
think, and then we feel the need of a better language. 

Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day ; could you 
express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture ? 

If you wish to tell me the fact that yesterday was cloudy, or that 
the days are shorter in winter than in summer, you find it wholly 
impossible to do this by means of Natural language. 

To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures 
we have called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. 

This language is made up of words. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



These words you learn from your mothers, and so Word language 
is your mother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and 
teachers, your playmates and companions, and you learn them by 
reading ; for words, as you know, may be written asS well as spoken. 

This Word language we may, from its superiority, call Language 
Proper. 

Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but 
gives way as Word language comes in and takes its place ; yet Nat- 
ural language may be used, and always should be used, to assist and 
strengthen Word language. In earnest conversation we enforce what 
we say in words, by the tone in which we utter them, by the varying 
expression of the face, and by the movements of the different parts 
of the body. 

The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it may 
contradict it, and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception. 

The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all 
good reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying 
to recall the pupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, 
so natural to him in childhood and in animated conversation. 

DEFINITION.— Language Proper consists of the spoken 
and the written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts. 

DEFINITION.— English Grammar is the science which 
teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of th a 
English language. 



LESSON 2. 

A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. 

To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the 
words arranged to express a thought we call a sentence. 
But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed 



A Talk on Thoughts and Sentences. 



our thought into a single word. The child says to his father, up, 
meaning, Take me up into your lap; or, booh, meaning, This thing 
in my hand is a book. 

These first words always deal with the things that can be learned 
by the senses ; they express the child's ideas of these things. 

We have spoken of thoughts and sentences ; let us see now whether 
we can find out what a thought is, and what a sentence is. 

A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought ; it is a body of 
which a thought is the soul. It is something that can be seen or 
heard, whf.e a thought cannot be. Let us see whether, in studying a 
sentence, we may not learn what a thought is. 

In any such sentence as this, Spiders spin, something is said, or 
asserted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the ani- 
mals, spiders, that they spin. 

The sentence, then, consists of two parts, — the name of that of 
which something is said, and that which is said of it. 

The first of these parts we call the Subject of the sentence ; the 
second, the Predicate. 

Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, 
there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there 
are two ; viz., something of which we think, and that which we 
think of it. In the thought expressed by Spiders spin, the animals, 
spiders, are the something of which we think, and their spinning is 
what we think of them. In the sentence expressing this thought, the 
word spiders names that of which we think, and the word spin tells 
what we think of spiders. 

Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may 
not be the expression of a thought. Spiders spinning is not a sen- 
tence. There is nothing in this expression to show that we have 
formed a judgment, i. e., that we have really made up our minds 
that spiders do spin. The spinning is not asserted of the spiders. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Soft feathers, The shining sun are not sentences, and for similar 
reasons. Feathers are soft, TJie sun shines are sentences. Here the 
asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else. 

The shines sun is not a sentence; for, though it contains the assert- 
ing word shines, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, 
and no thought is expressed. 



LESSON 3. 

A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 

We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts 
we use two kinds of words, spoken words and written words. 

We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long betore 
they wrote. Not until people wished to communicate with those at 
a distance, or had thought out something worth handing down to 
aftertimes, did they need to write. 

But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the 
throat and mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. 
Sounds and noises were heard on every side, provoking imitation, 
and the need of speech for the purposes of communication was im- 
perative. 

Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds 
in the English language. The different combinations of these give 
us all the words of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly under- 
stand these sounds, we will tell you something about the human voice. 

In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two 
flat muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, 
and causes them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes 
sound. Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the 
other with thumb and finger, draw it tight and strike it, and you will 
understand how voice is made. The shorter the string, or the tighter 



A Talk on Sounds and Letters. 



it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and the higher will be the pitch 
of the sound. The more violent the blow, the farther will the string 
vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just so with these vocal 
bands, or cords. The varying force with which the breath strikes 
them, and their different tensions and lengths at different times, 
explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of 
the voice. 

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well 
open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. 

But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, 
teeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. 
If the breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by theses 
same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is 
formed. 

The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which repre- 
sent to the eye these sounds that address the ear. 

You are now prepared to understand us when we say that vowels 
are the letters that stand for the open sounds of the voice, and 
that consonants are the letters that stand for the sounds made 
by the obstructed voice and the obstructed breath. 

The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A per- 
fect alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one. 

Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways : — 

1. Some of the letters are superfluous ; c stands for the sound of s 
or of 7c, as in city and can ; q has the sound of 7c, as in quit ; and x 
that of Tcs, gz, or z, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon. 

2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sound? ; as, 
th in thine, th in thin, ng in sing, and sh in shut. 

3. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters 
represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single 
duty ; e stands for two sounds, as in mete and met ; i for two, as in 



6 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



pine and pin ; o for three, as in note, not, and move ; u for four, as 
in tube, tub, full, and fur ; a for six, as in fate, fat, far, fait, fast, 
and fare. 

W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a 
vowel sound, and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i, as in now, 
by, boy, newly, W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word 
or syllable. 

The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same 
vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. 
These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite 
in each of the compounds, ou, oi, ew, and in the alphabetic i and o. 

1. 2. 1. 2. 

Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. 



b p r ■ 

d t th th 

g k (in thine) (in thin) 

h v f 



2 ch w- 

i y- 



m z (in zone) s 

n z (in azure) sh 

The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the 
obstructed voice ; those in column 2, except h (which represents a 
mere forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed 
breath. 

The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, 
lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the 
sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of 
the letters of any pair is simply this : there is voice in the sounds 
of the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 2. 



Analysis and the Diagram. 7 

Give the sound of any letter in column 1, as &, g, v, and the last or 
vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair. 

To the Teacher. — Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pupils 
on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill them on the 
vowels also. 

In closing this talk with you, we wish to emphasize one point 
brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing ; we carry in 
memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea ; and there 
are the two words naming this idea, the spoken and the written. 
Learn to distinguish clearly these four things. 

To the Teacher.— In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis on 
Lesson 2. 



LESSON 4. 

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. 

To the Teacher.— If the pupils have been through " Graded Lessons " or its 
equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly. 

DEFINITION.— A Sentence is the expression of a thought 
in words. 

Direction. — Analyze the following sentences : — 

Model. — Spiders spin. Why is this a sentence ? Ans. — Because 
it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought ? Ans. — 
♦Spiders. Which word tells what is thought ? Ans. — *Spin. 

1. Tides ebb. 4. Carbon burns. 7. Leaves tremble. 

2. Liquids flow. 5. Iron melts. 8. Worms crawl. 

3. Steam expands. 6. Powder explodes. 9. Hares leap. 

* The word spiders, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing ; spin, 
used merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil will 
please note here and elsewhere. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



In each of these sentences there are, as you have 
learned, two parts — the Subject and the Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— The Subject of a sentence names that of 
which something" is thought. 

DEFINITION— The Tredicate of a sentence tells what is 
thought. 

DEFINITION.— The Analysis of a sentence is the sepa- 
ration of it into its parts. 

Direction. — Analyze these sentences : — 

Model. — Beavers build. This is a sentence because it expresses 
a thought. Beavers is the subject because it names that of which 
something is thought ; build is the predicate because it tells what is 
thought.* 

1. Squirrels climb. 4. Heralds proclaim. 7. Corn ripens. 

2. Blood circulates. 5. Apes chatter. 8. Birds twitter. 

3. Muscles tire. 6. Branches wave. 9. Hearts throb. 

Explanation. — Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let 
the first part represent the subject of a sentence ; the second, the predi- 
cate. 

If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this 
word is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second 
part, you will understand that this word is the predicate of a sentence. 

Love . conquers 



You see, by looking at this figure, that Love conquers is a sentence ; that 
love is the subject, and conquers the predicate. 



* When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of analysis be varied. 
The reasons may be made more specific. Here and elsewhere avoid mechanical 
repetition. 



Composition— Subject and Predicate. 



Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call Dia- 
grams. 

DEFINITION.— A Diagram is a picture of the offices and 
the relations of the different parts of a sentence. 



Direction. — Analyze these sentences : — 



1. Frogs croak. 

2. Hens sit. 

3. Sheep bleat. 

4. Cows low. 



5. Flies buzz. 

6. Sap ascends. 

7. Study pays. 

8. Buds swell. 



9. Books aid. 

10. Noise disturbs. 

11. Hope strengthens. 

12. Cocks crow. 



LESSON 5. 

COMPOSITION-SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of every sen- 
tence must begin with a capital letter. 

PERIOD— RULE.— A period must be placed after every sen- 
tence that simply affirms, denies, or commands. 

Direction. — Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each 
of the following predicates : — 

Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes ? Who sailed, con- 
quered, etc. ? 

6. sailed. 11. conquered. 

7. ■ descends. 12. surrendered. 

8. glisten. 13. refines. 

9. absorb. 14. gurgle. 

10. corrode. 15. murmur. 



tarnishes. 



1. 

2. capsize. 

3. radiates. 

4. sentence. 

5. careen. 



Direction. — Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each 
of the following subjects : — 



10 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what ? 



1. Glycerine 

2. Yankees . 

3. Tyrants - — . 

4. Pendulums — 

5. Caesar . 

Labor . 

Chalk . 

Nature . 







8 



9. Tempests 

10. Seeds . 

11. Heat . 

12. Philosophers ■ 

13. Bubbles . 

14. Darkness 

15. Wax . 

16. Reptiles . 



17. Merchants 

18. Meteors . 

19. Conscience 

20. Congress . 

21. Life . 

22. Vapors . 

23. Music . 

24. Pitch . 



To the Teacher. — This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying several 
subjects to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. 



LESSON 6. 



ANALYSIS. 



The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. 
Direction. — Analyze as in Lesson 4. 



1. Moisture is exhaled. 
"2. Conclusions are drawn. 

3. Industry will enrich. 

4. Stars have disappeared. 
'5. Twilight is falling. 

6. Leaves are turning. 

7. Sirius has appeared. 

8. Constantinople had been cap- 

tured. 



11. Nuisances should be abated. 

12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 

13. Light can be reflected. 

14. Rain must have fallen. 

15. Planets have been discovered. 

16. Palaces shall crumble. 

17. Storms may be gathering. 

18. Essex might have been saved. 

19. Caesar could have been crowned. 



9. Electricity has been harnessed. 20. Inventors may be encouraged. 
10. Tempests have been raging. 

Direction. — Point out the subject and the predicate of each 
sentence in Lessons 12 and 17. 



Composition— Subject and Predicate. 



11 



Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or 
what before this predicate, the subject may easily be found. 

To the Teacher. — Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point 
out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences. 

When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will 
have been taken. 



LESSON 7. . 

COMPOSITION-SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Direction. — Make at least ten good sentences out of the words in 
the three columns following : — 

The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 
8 in order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. 



1 


2 


3 


Arts 


is 


progressing. 


Allen 


was 


tested. 


Life 


are 


command. 


Theories 


will 


prolonged. 


Science 


would 


released. 


Truth 


were 


falling. 


Shadows 


may be 


burned. 


Moscow 


has been 


measured. 


Raleigh 


have been 


prevail. 


Quantity 


should have been 


lost. 



Review Questions. 

What is language proper ? What is English grammar ? What is a 
sentence ? What are its two parts ? What is the subject of a sen- 
tence ? The predicate of a sentence ? The analysis of a sentence ? 
What is a diagram ? What rule has been given for the use of capital 



12 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



letters ? For the period ? May the predicate contain more than one 
word ? Illustrate. 

To the Teacher. — Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this 
recitation. See " Introductory Hints " below. 



LESSON 8. 

CLASSES OF WORDS. 

NOUNS. 

Introductory Hints. — We have now reached the point where we 
must classify the words of our language. But we are appalled by 
their number. If we must learn all about the forms and the uses of 
a hundred thousand words by studying these words one by one, we 
shall die ignorant of English grammar. 

But may we not deal with words as we do with plants ? If we had 
to study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we 
should never master the botany even of our garden-plats. 

But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ 
from one another ; and, as he has given us the power to detect resem- 
blances and differences, we are able to group things that have like 
qualities. 

From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain 
flowers together and call them roses ; from other likenesses, we get 
another class called lilies ; from others still, violets. Just so we 
classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. 

The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. 
Studying each class, we learn all we need to know of every object 
in it. 

From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We 
group them according to their similarities in use, or office, in the 
sentence. Sorting them thus, we find that they all fall into eight 
classes, which we call Parts of Speech. 



Classes of Words. 



IS 



We find that many words name things — are the names of things of 
which we can think and speak. These we place in one class and call 
them Nouns (Latin nomen, a name, a noun). 

PRONOUNS. 

Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be diffi- 
cult for one stranger to ask another, "Can you tell me who is the 
postmaster at B ? " The one would not know what name to use instead 
of you, the other would not recognize the name in the place of me, and 
both would be puzzled to find a substitute for who. 

I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them, and other 
words are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called Pro- 
nouns (Lat. pro, for, and nomen, a noun). 

By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every 
object in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them 
now, they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion 
and repetition. 

DEFINITION.— A Noun is the name of anything. 
DEFINITION.— A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. 

The principal office of nouns is to name the things of 
which we say, or assert, something in the sentence. 

Direction. — Write, according to the model, the names of things 
that can bum, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve. 



Model.— 


Nouns. 
Wood > 

Paper 

Oil 

Houses 






Remark. — Notice 
that, when the sub- 
ject adds s or es to 
denote more than 




Coal 
Leaves 


- burn or 


burns. 


one, the predicate 
does not take s. 
Note how it would 




Matches 






sound if both should 




Clothes u 






add s. 



14 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 



Every subject of a sentence is a noun, or some word 
or words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sen- 
tence is a subject. 

Direction. — Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether 
subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson 18. 
In writing them observe the following rules : — 

CAPITAL LETTER — RULE. — Proper, or individual, 
names and words derived from them begin with capital 
letters. 

PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— Abbreviations 
generally begin with capital letters and are always followed 
by the period. 



LESSON 9. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Direction. — From the following words select and write in one col- 
umn those names that distinguish individual things from others of 
the same class, and in another column those words that are derived 
from individual names : — 

Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. 

ohio, state, Chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, 
milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, 
englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, 
christian, broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, 
scriptures, god. 

Direction. — Write the names of the days of the week and the 
months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter ; and write 
the names of the seasons without capital letters. 



Capital Letters. 15 



Remember that, when a *class name and a distinguish- 
ing word combine to make one individual name, each word 
begins with a capital letter ; as, Jersey City. 

But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be re- 
garded as a complete name, the class name begins with a 
small letter ; as, river Rhine. 

Examples. — Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspen- 
sion Bridge, New York city, Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, 
Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, river 
Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole. 

Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — 

ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, din- 
ton county, Westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake 
george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic 
ocean, united states, rhode island. 

Remember that, when an individual name is made up 
of a class name, the word of, and a distinguishing word, 
the class name and the distinguishing word should each 
begin with a capital letter ; as, Gulf of Mexico. But, when 
the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a 
complete name, the class name should begin with a small 
letter; as, city of London. f 

* Dead Sea is composed of the class name sea, which applies to all seas, and the 
word Dead, which distinguishes one sea from all others. 

t The need of some definite instruction to save the young writer from hesitation 
and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the following variety of forms 
now in use : City of New York, city of New York, New York City, New York city, 
New York State, New York state, Fourth Avenue, Fourth avenue, Grand Street* 



16 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — Write these words, losing capital letters when needed : — 
city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isth- 
mus of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire 
of china. 

Remember that, when a compound name is made up of 
two or more distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John 
Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter. 
Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — 
great britain, lower California, south Carolina, daniel webster, new 
england, Oliver wendell holmes, north america, new Orleans, james 
russell lowell, british america. 

Remember that, in writing the titles of books, essays, 

Grand street, Grand-s^., Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Mediter- 
ranean sea, Kings Coimty, Kings county, etc. 

The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor the 
writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals ; but we find in 
the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency to favor small letters in 
euch cases. 

In the superscription of letters, such words as street, city, and county begin with 
capitals. 

Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words : river Rhine, 
Catskill village, the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. If river and village, in the preced- 
ing examples, are not essential parts of the individual names, why should river, ocean, 
and county, in Hudson river, Pacific ocean, Queens county, be treated differently ? 
"We often say the Hudson, the Pacific, Queens, without adding the explanatory class 
name. 

The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage ; bat it is in the 
line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an improved appearance 
of the page. About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter. 

The American Cyclopaedia takes a position still further in advance, as illustrated in 
the following : Red river, Black sea, gulf of Mexico, Rocky mountains. In the En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co., 9th ed.) we find Connecticut river, 
Madison county, etc., quite uniformly ; but we find Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean, et«. 



Abbreviations. 17 



poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the 
chief words begin with capital letters ; as, Decline and 
Fall of the Koman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, 
the Holy One of Israel. 

Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — 

declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebell- 
ion, Webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, Johnson's lives of the 
poets, son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, 
bancroft's history of the united states. 

Direction. — Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters 
when needed : — 

erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, 
pope's essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent 
of america, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's 
hymn on the nativity, indian ocean, cape cod bay, plymouth rock, 
anderson's history of the united states, mount Washington, english 
channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long 
island sound, flatbush village. 



LESSON 10. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Direction. — Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may 
be abbreviated in ivriting. Observing Rule 2, Lesson 8, abbreviate 
these words by writing the first five letters : — 

Thursday and lieutenant. 

These by writing the first four letters: — 

Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, 



18 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Ten- 
nessee, and Tuesday. 

These by writing the first three letters : — 

Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, Eng- 
land, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, 
Indiana, major, Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sun- 
day, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months ex- 
cept May, June, and July. 

These by writing the first two letters : — 

Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same),. 

These by writing the first letter : — 

East, north, south, and west.* 

These by writing the first and the last letter : — 

Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mary- 
land, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, 
Vermont, and Virginia. 

These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with 
a period after each letter : — 

Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of 
our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before 
noon), before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, divini- 
tatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinae doctor 
(doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North 
Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post 
meridiem (afternoon), post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and 
United States. 

* When these words refer to sections of the country, they should begin with capitals. 



Abbreviations. 



19 



Direction. — The following abbreviations and those you have made 
should be committed to memory : — 



Acct. or acct. 


, account. 


bu., 


bushel. 


Bbl. or bbl., 


barrel. 


do., 


ditto (the same). 


Chas., 


Charles. 


doz., 


dozen. [ple)« 


Fla., 


Florida. 


e. g., 


exempli gratia (for exam- 


*LL. D., 


legum doctor 


etc., 


et castera (and others). 




(doctor of laws). 


ft, 


foot, feet. 


Messrs., 


messieurs 


hhd., 


hogshead. 




(gentlemen). 


hdkf. 


, handkerchief. 


Mme., 


madame. 


i. e., 


id est (that is). 


Mo., 


Missouri. 


1., 


line. 


Mrs., 


(pronounced missis) 


11., 


lines. 




mistress. 


lb., 


libra (pound). 


Mts., 


mountains. 


oz., 


ounce. 


Ph. D., 


philosophic doctor 


P-, 


page. 




(doctor of philosophy) 


. pp., 


pages. 


Reed., 


received. 


qt, 


quart. 


Robt., 


Robert. 


vs., 


versus (against). 


Supt., 


superintendent. 


viz., 


videlicet (namely). 


Thos., 


Thomas. 


yd., 


yard. 



Remark. — In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the 
states as now regulated by the "U. S. Official Postal Guide." In 
the " Guide " Iowa and Ohio are not abbreviated. They are, how- 
ever, frequently abbreviated thus : Iowa, la. or Io.; Ohio, 0. 

The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations Cal., 
Col.; Ia. 9 Io.; Neb., Nev.; Penn., Tenn., etc., has led to much con- 
fusion. 



* The doubling of the I in 11. and in LL. D., and of p in pp., with no period 
between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns line, lex. and page, 



SO The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 11. 

VERBS. 



Introductory Hints. — We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing 
the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, 
we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few 
classes. 

We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the 
sentence ; we found one class of words that name things, and we 
called them nouns. 

But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class 
of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert 
that they are, or exist. 

When we say Clocks tick, tick is not the name of anything ; it tells 
what clocks do ; it asserts action. 

When we say Clocks are, or There are clocks, are is not the name of 
anything, nor does it tell what clocks do ; it simply asserts existence, 
or being. 

When we say Clocks hang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words 
hang, stand, last, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that 
clocks act or simply exist ; they tell the condition, or state, in which 
clocks are, or exist ; that is, they assert state of being. 

All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call Verb? 
(Lat. verbum, a word). The name was given to this class because it 
was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence. 

Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, 
and some that assert state of being. 



DEFINITION.— A Verb is a word that asserts action, oeing, 
or state of being. 

There are, however, two forms of the verb, the parti- 



Verbs. 



21 



ciple and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express 
action, being, or state of being, without asserting it. 

Direction. — Write after each of the following nouns as many 
appropriate verbs as you can think of: — 

Let some express being and some express state of being. 

Model. — Noun. 



Remark. — Notice that the 
simple form of the verb, as, 
burn, melt, scorch, adds s or 
es when its subject noun 
names but one thing. 



Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. 

A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words ; 
as, is learning, may be learned, could have been learned* 

Direction.-— Unite the words in columns 2 and 3 below, and append 
the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column 1 so as 
to make good sentences: — 

Remark. — Notice that is, was, and has are used with nouns naming 
one thing, and with the pronouns he, she, and it ; and that are, were, 
and have are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with 
the pronouns we, you, and they. I may be used with am, was, and 





'burns. 




melt. 




scorches 


Fire 


keep. 


(or) \ 


spreads. 


Fires 


glow. 




rages. 




heat. 




. exists. 



* Such groups of words are sometimes cabled verb-phrases. For definition of 
phrase, see Lesson 17. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



1 


2 


3 


Words 


am 


confused. 


Cotton 


is 


exported. 


Sugar 


are 


refined. 


Air 
Teas 


was 


coined, 
delivered. 


Speeches 
I, we, you 


were 
has been 


weighed, 
imported. 


He, she, it, they 


have been 


transferred. 



As verbs are the only words that assert, every predicate 
must be a verb, or must contain a verb. 

Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first 
step in parsing. 

Direction. — Parse five of the sentences you have written. 
Model. — Poland was dismembered. 

Parsing. — Poland is a noun because ; was dismembered is a 

verb because it asserts action. 



LESSON 12. 

MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Introductory Hints. — The subject noun and the predicate verb 
are not always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sen- 
tence, though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of 
the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them. 

We learned in Lesson 2 that things resemble one another a^i differ 
from one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their 
qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two 



Modified Subject. 23 



oranges having the same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlike, 
as, an orange and an apple, whose qualities are different. 

It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them. 

Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these 
two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general 
class of things ; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking oppo- 
site qualities in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds — the 
ripe ones and the unripe ones, 

These prefixed words ripe and unripe, then, limit the word apples 
in its scope ; ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than 
apples alone applies to. 

If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight 
apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit ; but the, this, or that 
points out a particular apple, and limits the word apple to the one 
pointed out ; and an, no, some, many, or eight limits the word in 
respect to the number of apples that it denotes. 

These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, 
or by specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to the 
meaning of the noun, modify it, and are called Modifiers. 

In the sentence above, apples is the Simple Subject and ripe 
apples is the Modified Subject. 

Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called Adjectives 
(Lat. ad, to, and jacere, to throw). 



DEFINITION.— A Modifier is a word or a group of words 
joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the 
meaning. 

The Subject with its Modifiers is called the Modified 
Subject, or Logical Subject. 

DEFINITION. — An Adjective is a word used to modify a 
moun or a pronoun. 



34 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 




Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The cold November rain is falling. 

is faMmg Explanation. — The two lines shaded 

alike and placed uppermost stand for the sub- 
ject and the predicate, and show that these 
are of the same rank, and are the principal 
parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, 

placed under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important 

parts, the modifiers, and 6how what is modified.* 

To the Teacher.— While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that dia- 
grams are very helpful in the analysis of sentences, we wish to say that the work 
required in this book can all be done without resorting to these figures. If some other 
form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred, our diagrams can be omitted without 
break or confusion. 

When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be required 
in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their aid altogether. 

Oral Analysis. — (Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral 
analysis and parsing < whatever has been provided for in previous 
Lessons.) The, cold, and November are modifiers of the subject. 
The cold November rain is the modified subject. 

To the Teacher. —While in these " models " we wish to avoid repetition, we 
should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some of the sen- 
tences in every Lesson. 

Parsing. — The, cold, and November are adjectives modifying rain 
— cold and November expressing quality, and the pointing out. 

* To the Teacher. — When several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective 
does not always modify the unlimited noun. That old wooden house was burned. 
Here wooden modifies house, old modifies house limited by wooden, and that modifies 
house limited by old and wooden. This may be illustrated in the 
diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their rank, \ \ \ ' 
thus:— * ^ 

Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the same way. 
If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well to have them made 
in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. See 
Lessons 13 and 21. 



Composition— Adjectives. 25 



2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 

3. A free people should be educated. 

4. The old Liberty Bell was rung. 

5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 

6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 

7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 

8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed. 

9. I alone should suffer. 

10. All nature rejoices. 

11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 

12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 

13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. 

14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. 

15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. 



LESSON 13. 

COMPOSITION-ADJECTIVES. 

Caution. — When two or more adjectives are used with 
a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they 
differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely 
modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they 
will sound best — generally in the order of length, the 
shortest first. 

Explanation. — Two honest young men were chosen. A tall, 
straight, dignified person entered. Young tells the kind of men, hon- 
est tells the kind of young men, and two tells the number of honest 
young men ; hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. Tall, 
straight, and dignified modify person independently — the person is 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



tall and straight and dignified ; hence these adjectives are of the 
same rank. 

Notice the comma after tall and straight ; and may be supplied ; in 
the first sentence and cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. 

Direction. — Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasons : — 

1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2. Level low five the 
fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful 
three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlight- 
ened civilized nation. 

Direction. — Form sentences by prefixing modified subjects to these 

predicates : — 

1. have been invented. 6. 

2. were destroyed. 7. 

3. are cultivated. 8. 

4. may be abused. 9. 

5. was mutilated. 10. 



were carved. 
• have been discovered, 
have fallen, 
will be respected, 
have been built. 



Direction. — Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a 

subject modified by three adjectives — one from each of these columns : — 

Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson 21. 



The 


dark 


sunny 


That 


bright 


wearisome 


This 


dingy 


commercial 


Those 


short 


blue 


These 


soft 


adventurous 


Five 


brave 


fleecy 


Some 


tiny 


parallel 


Several 


important 


cheerless 


Many 


long 


golden 


A 


warm 


turbid 



Modified Predicate. 27 



Direction. — Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate 
adjectives : — 

River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. 

Direction. — Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most 
appropriately go together : — 

Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, 
violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, 
waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, 
sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. 



LESSON 14. 

MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

ADVERBS. 

Introductory Hints. — You have learned that the subject may be 
modified ; let us see whether the predicate may be. 

If we say, The leaves fall, we express a fact in a general way. But, 
if we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and 
say, The leaves fall early ; of the place of their falling, The leaves fall 
here ; of the manner, The leaves fall quietly ; of the cause, Why do 
the leaves fall ? 

We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves 
fall very quietly. Here very modifies quietly by telling the degree. 

Very quietly is a group of words modifying the predicate. The 
predicate with its modifiers is called the Modified. Predicate. Such 
words as very, here, and quietly form another part of speech, and are 
called Adverbs (Lat. ad, to, and verbum, a word, or verb). 

Adverbs may modify adjectives ; as, Very ripe apples are healthful. 
Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns — by limiting 
them. The horse has a proud step = The horse steps proudly. 



28 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



T 



The Predicate with its Modifiers is called the Modi- 
fied Predicate, or Logical Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb.* 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. The leaves fall very quietly. 

Oral Analysis. — Very quietly is a modifier of 
leaves fall the predicate ; quietly is the principal word of the 

group ; very modifies quietly ; the leaves is the 
modified subject ; fall very quietly is the modi- 
fied predicate. 
Parsing. — Quietly is an adverb modifying fall, telling the manner ; 
^ry is an adverb modifying quietly, telling the degree. 

2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 

3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 

4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 

5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 

6. The timely suggestion was very kindly received. 

7. We turned rather abruptly. 

8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 

9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. 

10. Why will people exaggerate so ! 

11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unex- 
pectedly. 

12. We now travel still more rapidly. 

13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 

14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. 

15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. 

16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. 

* See Lesson 92 and foot-note. 



Composition— Adverbs. 39 



LESSON 15. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERBS. 

Caution. — So place adverbs that there can be no doubt 
as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to 
the sound also. 

Direction. — Place the italicized words below in different positions, 
and note the effect on the sound and the sense : — 

1. I immediately ran out. 2. Only one was left there. 3. She 
looked down proudly. 4. Unfortunately, this assistance came too 
late. 

Direction. — Construct on each of these subjects three sentences 
having modified subjects and modified predicates : — 
For punctuation, see Lesson 21. 

Model. clouds . 

1. Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above, 

2. Those brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve, 

3. Thin, fleecy clouds are scudding over. 

1. ocean . 2. breeze . 3. shadows . 

4. rock . 5. leaves . 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify 
verbs : — 

Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, legibly, eva- 
sively, everywhere, aloof, forth. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall 
modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs : — 

Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, 
too, rather. 



80 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 16. 

REVIEW. 



To the Teacher.— In all school work, but especially here, where the philosophy 
of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed in progressive steps, 
success depends largely on the character of the reviews. 

Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines of the work 
passed over, especially of what is taught in the " Introductory Hints.'" The language, 
except that of Rules and Definitions, should be the pupil's own, and the illustrative 
sentences should be original. 

Direction. — Review from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive. 

Give the substance of the " Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, 
what three things such words as tick, are, and remain do in the sen- 
tence, what office they have in common, what such words are called, 
and why ; what common office such words as ripe, the, and eight have, 
in what three ways they perform it, what such words are called, and 
why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules ; illustrate 
what is taught of the capitalization and the abbreviation of names, 
and of the position of adjectives and adverbs. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

(See pages 150-153.) 

To the Teacher. — After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis and 
construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude everything un- 
familiar, he may be led to recognize these same principles in longer related sentences 
grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphs selected for this purpose may well 
be extended as an informal preparation for what is afterwards formally presented in 
the regular lessons of the text-book. 

These " Exercises " are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, of course, 
determine where and how often this composition should be introduced. 

We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph. 



Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 31 



LESSON 17. 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS. 

Introductory Hints. — To express our thoughts with greater exact- 
ness we may need to expand a word modifier into several words ; as, 
A long ride brought us there = A ride of one hundred miles brought 
us to Chicago. These groups of words, of one hundred miles and to 
Chicago — the one substituted for the adjective long, the other for the 
adverb there — we call Phrases. A phrase that does the work of an 
adjective is called an Adjective Phrase. A phrase that does the 
work of an adverb is called an Adverb Phrase. 

As adverbs mocttfy adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their 
equivalent phrases ; as, The train stops only at the station. They 
sometimes modify only the introductory word of the phrase — this 
introductory word being adverbial in its nature ; as, He sailed nearly 
around the globe. 

That we may learn the office of such words as of, to, and at, used 
to introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to 
another may be expressed. Wealthy men. These two words express 
two ideas as related. We have learned to know this relation by the 
form and position of the words. Change these, and the relation is 
lost — men wealth. But by using of before wealth the relation is re- 
stored— me^ of ivealth. The word of, then, shows the relation between 
the ideas expressed by the words men and wealth. 

All such relation words are called Prepositions (Lat. prm, before, 
and positus, placed — their usual position being before the noun with 
which they form a phrase). 

A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a Prepositional 
Phrase. This, however, is not the only kind of phrase. 



32 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



DEFINITION.— A Phrase is a group of words denoting re- 
lated ideas, and haying a distinct office, but not expressing a 
thought. 

DEFINITION.— A Preposition is a word that introduces a 
phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its princi- 
pal word to the word modified. 

Analysis and Parsing-. 

1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of 
vibration. 
To the Teacher. — See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use of diagrams. 

pitch , depends, Explanation. — The dia- 

gram of the phrase is made up 
of a slanting line standing for 
the introductory word, and a 
horizontal line representing 
the principal word. Under the 
latter are drawn the lines which 
represent the modifiers of the principal word. 

Oral Analysis. — The and the adjective phrase of the musical note 
are modifiers of the subject ; the adverb phrase upon the rapidity of 
vibration is a modifier of the predicate. Of introduces the first 
phrase, and note is the principal word ; the and musical are modi- 
fiers of note : upon introduces the second phrase, and rapidity is the 
principal word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modi- 
fiers of rapidity ; of introduces this phrase, and vibration is the prin- 
cipal word. 

To the Teacher. — See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis. 

Parsing. — Of is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of note 
to pitch ; etc., etc. 

To the Teacher.— Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific reasons 
instead of general definition*. 




Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 33 



2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United 
States by the blueness of the water. 

3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal direc- 
tions. 

4. In 1607,* Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the 
North Pole. 

5. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 

6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 

7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. 

8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. 



Explanation. — Only modifies 

^Y^ > the whole phrase, and just modifies 

Y tne preposition. 




9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just 
below the Falls. 

10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon. 

11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fif- 
teenth century. 

12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at 
Seville by the Saracens. 

13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 
miles. 

14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena 
to France. 



* "1607" may he treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one adjective. 
3 



34 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 18. 

COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

COMMA — RULE.— Phrases that are placed out of their usual 
order * and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with 
the rest of the sentence, should he set oif hy the comma, f 

Remark. — This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is 
desired to make the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the 
thought, the growing usage among writers is not to set it off. 

Direction. — Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these sen- 
tences : — 

1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 

2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with 
enthusiasm. 

3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. 

4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 

5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a 
truce, he approached. 

Direction. — Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctua- 
tion : — 

1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 

2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 

3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of 
its natural order. 

4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced 
with wit. 

* For the usual order of worcL and phrases, see Lesson 51. 

t An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas ; at the begin- 
ning or at the end, by one comma. 



Composition— Prepositional Phrases. 35 



5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 

6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest 
times to the present day. 

Direction. — See in' how many places the phrases in the sentences 
above may stand without obscuring the thought. 

Cavition. — So place phrase modifiers that. there can be 
no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have 
regard to the sound also. 

Direction. — Correct these errors in position, and use the comma 
when needed: — 

1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by 
the president. 

2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 

3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 

4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. 

5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at 
the old brick church was delivered. 

Direction. — Form a sentence out of each of these groups of 
words : — 

(Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.) 

1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. 

2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was 
seen smile. 

3. Has been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of 
the earth over the face. 

4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through 
deep roads we after much fatigue came. 

5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron 
mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. 



36 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — See into how many good, clear sentences you can con- 
vert these by transposing the phrases : — 

1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. 

2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the 
tenth of May in 1775. 

LESSON 19. 

COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

Direction. — Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicised words 
into equivalent phrases : — 

Model. — The sentence was carefully written. 
The sentence was written with care. 

1. A brazen image was then set up. 

2. Those homeless children were kindly treated. 

3. Much has been said about the Swiss scenery. 

4. An aerial trip to Europe was rashly planned. 

5. The American Continent was probably discovered by Cabot. 
Direction. — Change these adjectives and adverbs into equivalent 

phrases ; and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these 
phrases in sentences of your own : — 

1. Bostonian 6. hence 11. Arabian 

2. why ( 7. northerly 12. lengthy 

3. incautiously 8. national 13. historical 

4. nowhere 9. whence 14. lucidly 

5. there 10. here 15. earthward 
Direction. — Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers: — 
Of copper ; in Pennsylvania ; from the West Indies ; around the 

world ; between the tropics ; toward the Pacific ; on the 22d of Febru- 
ary ; during the reign of Elizabeth ; before the application of steam to 
machinery ; at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. 



Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 37 



LESSON 20. 

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 

Introductory Hints. — Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in 
England. The three words Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth have the 
same predicate — the same act being asserted of the king and the 
two queens. Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth are connected by and, 
and being understood between Edward and Mary. Connected sub- 
jects having the same predicate form a Compound Subject. 

Charles I. was seized, was tried, and was beheaded. The three 
predicates was seized, was tried, and was beheaded have the same 
subject — the three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected 
predicates having the same subject form a Compound Predicate. 

A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound 
predicate ; as, Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. 

The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a com- 
pound predicate are called Conjunctions (Lat. con, or cum, together, 
and jungere, to join). 

A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word 
modifiers — A dark and rainy night follows : Some men sin deliber- 
ately and presumptuously. 

It may connect two phrases ; as, The equinox occurs in March and 
in September. 

It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing 
alone, would be sentences ; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, 
but the leaves of the maple drop in autumn. 

Interjections (Lat. inter, between, and jacere, to throw) are the 
eighth and last part of speech. 

Oh ! ah ! pooh ! pshaw ! etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden 
and violent for deliberate sentences. 



38 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Hail ! fudge ! indeed ! amen ! etc. , express condensed thought as 
well as feeling. 

Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction with 
other words, and may lapse into an interjection ; as, behold ! shame / 

what ! 

Professor Sweet calls interjections sentence-words. 



Two or more connected subjects having the same predi- 
cate form a Compound Subject. 

Two or more connected predicates having the same 
subject form a Compound Predicate. 

DEFINITION. — A Conjunction is a word used to connect 
words, phrases, or clauses. 

DEFINITION. — An Interjection is a word usejl to express 
strong or sudden feeling. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

1. Ah ! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. 

Ah Explanation. — The three short 

wives j^^ horizontal lines represent each a part 

j\ m of the compound subject. They are 

sisters — j " \ ■ 1 W ^ U connected by dotted lines, which stand 

t/ \^ \s f° r tne connecting word. The x shows 

— ™ others — y % \ news that a conjunction is understood. The 

\ ^ V| line standing for the word modifier is 
joined tc that part of the subject line 
which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the con- 
nected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate. 

Oral Analysis. — Wives, sisters, and mothers form the compound 
subject ; anxious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects 
sisters and mothers. 

Parsing. — And is a conjunction connecting sisters and mothers; 
ah is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. 



Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 39 



2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 
(For diagram see the last sentence of the " Explanation " above.) 

3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. 

powers came 



4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a 
strange parentage. 

5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, 
and there spreads out. 

6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed 
the nerves of the human body 

7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are 
found in the body, 

8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of 
all the faculties. 

9. Ugh ! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 

10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and 
solemn, is seen. 

11. Tush ! tush ! 't will not again appear. 

12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and 
in other parts of Asia. 

13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 

14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. 

15. The opinions of the New York press are quoted in every port 
and in every capital. 

16. Both friend and foe applauded. 

friend Explanation. — The conjunction both is 

applauded used to strengthen the real connective and. 



foe 



Either and neither do the same for or and nor 
in either — or, neither — nor. 



40 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Remark. — A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is 
called a Complex Phrase. Two or more phrases connected by a 
conjunction form a Compound Phrase. 

Direction. — Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound 
phrases in the sentences above. 



LESSON 2 1. 

COMPOSITION — CONNECTED TERMS AND 
INTERJECTIONS. 

COMMA— RULE.— Words or phrases connected by conjunc- 
tions are separated from each other by the comma unless all 
the conjunctions are expressed. 

Remark. — When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are 
separated according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. 

When one of two terms has a modifier that without the comma 
might be referred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates 
and of other phrases are long or differently modified, these terms or 
parts are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. 

When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second 
is logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, i. e., 
when it occurs in the body of a sentence, a comma is placed after the 
explanatory word, as well as before the or. 

Direction. — Justify the punctuation of these sentences : — 

1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 

2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 

3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 

4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 

5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 

6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. 



Composition— Connected Terms and Interjections. 41 



7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

Explanation. — No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. 
Oaken limits bucket, old limits bucket modified by oaken, and the 
limits bucket modified by old and oaken. See Lesson 13. 

8. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or 
female, friend or foe. 

9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. 

Explanation. — No comma. Up a mountain tells where we 
climbed, and for a view tells why we climbed up a mountain. 

10. The boy hurries away from home, and enters upon a career of 
business or of pleasure. 

11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the 
realm, and the brothers and sons of the king. 

Direction. — Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation? 
and give your reasons : — 

1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 

2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 

3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. 

(Where is the conjunction omitted?) 

4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 

5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex. 

6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the 
Syriac and the Chaldee. 

7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little 
inlet. 

8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and 
were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 

9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick suc- 
cession. ♦ 

10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village. 



42 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



EXCLAMATION POINT— RULE.— All Exclamatory Ex- 
pressions must be followed by the exclamation point. 

Remark. — Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an 
interjection and the words following it form the exclamatory expres- 
sion ; as, Oh I it hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow I 

is used in direct address ; as, father, listen to me. Oh is used 
as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, 
however desirable, is not strictly observed, being frequently used 
in place of Oh. 

CAPITAL LETTERS-RULE.— The words I and O should 
be written in capital letters. 

Direction. — Correct these violations of the two rules given above : — 
1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths have 

i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how foolish. 

5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain o death how 

inevitable. 



LESSON 22. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Direction. — Beginning ivith the Sth sentence of the first group of 
exercises in Lesson 21, analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the 4th of 
the second group. 



spirit , should be sliown 

v W \ 



Model. — A Christian spirit 
should be shown to Jew or 
Greek, male or female, friend 



Composition— Connected Terms. 43 



LESSON 23. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTED TERMS. 

Direction. — Using the nouns below, compose sentences with com- 
pound subjects ; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound 
predicates ; and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the 
phrases shall form compound modifiers : — 

In some let there be three or more connected terms. Observe Rule, 
Lesson 21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. 

NOUNS. 

Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lin* 
coin, electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily. 

VERBS. 

Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream, 
loathe, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Direction. — See Caution, Lesson 13. 

Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy, 
short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. 

ADVERBS. 

Direction.— £ee Caution, Lesson 15. 

Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, hereafter. 



On sea ; in the city ; by day ; on land ; by night ; in the country ; 
by hook ; across the ocean ; by crook ; over the lands ; along the 
level road ; up the mountains. 



44 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech, 



LESSON 24. 

REVIEW. 

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 

Direction. — Give the reason for every capital letter and for every 
mark of punctuation used below : — 

1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or 
skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred 
by the colleges and the universities of the country. 3. Oh, I am so 
happy ! 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the 
news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the 
air. 6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. 
.7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs 
slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on 
half pay, and on the income of a large estate in the South. 

Direction. — Write these expressions, using capital letters and 
marks of punctuation where they belong : — 

1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal, 
bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o 
father o father i cannot breathe here 4. ha ha that sounds well 5. 
the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france 6. 
mrs, vs, co, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good news 
good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and 
dimes and dollars 9. the baltic sea lies between Sweden and russia 
10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico 11. supt, capt, 
qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 12. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 
1706 and died in 1790 

direction. — Correct all these errors in capitalization, and punctu- 
ation, and give your reasons: — 



Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 45 



1. Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo, i 
must speak to You ! 3. John Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, 
stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of Italy, 4. Most Fuel con- 
sists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for Pleas- 
ure, and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In 
rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches 
7. hark they are coming ! 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is 
pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark, and 
cool, and mossy, trout stream. 



LESSON 25. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 

ANALYSIS. 

1. By the streets of By-and-by,* one arrives at the house of Never. — 
Spanish Proverb. 

2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navi- 
gators. — Gibbon. 

3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each 
and every town or city. — Holmes. 

4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted 
forever of little Thermopylae. — Be Quincey. 

5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of 
pleasure or pain. — Hamilton. 

* By-and-by has no real streets, the London journals do not actually thunder, nor 
were the cheeks of William the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. Streets, 
house, colored, thunder, and scorched are not, then, used here in their first and ordinary 
meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense. These words we call Metaphors. 
By what they denote and by what they only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, 
and force to the thought they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression. 

For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see pages 87, 136, 
155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150. 



46 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through 
every clime. — Marsh. 

7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red 
by two fiery little gray eyes. — Irving. 

8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand * with the cul- 
ture of the imagination. — Tyndall. 

9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and 
washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism 
in the sea. — Swain. 

10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese 
Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian 
Ocean. — Draper. 

11. One half of all known materials consists of oxygen. — Cooke. 

12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, 
looked down on the plain of Memphis. — Stanley. 



LESSON 26. 

WRITTEN PARSING. 
Direction. — Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this 
Model for Written Parsing. 





Nmins. 


Pron. 


Verbs. 


Adj. 


Adv. 


Prep. 


Conj. 


Int. 


1st 
sentence. 


streets, 
By and- 

•> 

house, 

Never. 


one. 


arrives. 


the, the. 




By, of, 
at, of. 






2d 
sentence. 



















To the Teacher.— Until the Subdivisions and Modifications of the parts of 
speech are reached, Oral and Written Parsing can be only a classification of the 
words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is needed, 

* Hand in hand may be treated as one adverb, or with may be supplied. 



Review. 47 

and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In their Oral Analysis let 
the pupils give at first the reasons for every statement, but guard against their doing 
this mechanically and in set terms ; and, when you think it can safely be done, let 
them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless 
or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken. 

Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which any word 
belongs is determined by the use of the word, and not by its form. Such exercises as 
the following are suggested :— 

Use right words. 
Act right. 
Bight the wrong. 
You are in the right. 
Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the different uses of the 
same word. It is hardly necessary for us to make lists of words that have different 
uses. Any dictionary will furnish abundant examples. It is an excellent practice to 
|>oint out such words in the regular exercises for analysis. 



LESSON 27. 

REVIEW. 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

Direction. — Review from Lesson 17 to Lesson 21, inclusive. 

Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, 
what such words as long and there may be expanded into, how these 
expanded forms may be modified, how introduced, what the introduc- 
tory words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate defi- 
nitions and rules ; illustrate fully what is taught of the position of 
phrases, and of the punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and 
exclamatory expressions. How many parts of speech are there ? 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

(See pages 153-156.) 

To the Teacher.— See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 28. 

NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory Hints. — In saying Washington captured, we do not 
fully express the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun 
and say, Washington captured Comwallis, we complete the predicate 
by naming that which receives the act. 

Whatever fills eut, or completes, is a Complement. As Comwallis 
completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon 
—the object — we call it the Object Complement. Connected ob- 
jects completing the same verb form a Compound Object Comple- 
ment ; as, Washington captured Comwallis and his army. 



DEFINITION.— The Object Complement of a Sentence 
completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. 

The complement with all its modifiers is called the 
Modified Complement. 

Analysis. 

1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. 

Oral Analysis. — Writing is the 

thinking , - makes , writing 
"■ a I \ object complement ; clear writing is 

>& ^ the modified complement, and makes 

^ * clear writing is the entire predicate. 

2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 

3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. 

4. Liars should have good memories. 

5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 

6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. 



Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements. 49 



8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held 
rank with the greatest schools of Europe. 

took revolves 

'ceeps , side 



Oxford | A \ ^ v t rank 



Tield 



9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 

10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread 
and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 

11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, 
and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 

12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a propor- 
tion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 

13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch 
roofs with the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. 

14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the 
brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 

15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic, 

James study grammar 



JbTin './ \; recite 



arithmetic 



LESSON 29. 

NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE 

COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory Hints. — The subject presents one idea ; the predi- 
cate presents another, and asserts it of the first. Corn is growing pre- 
sents the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, 
and asserts the act of the thing. Corn growing lacks the asserting 
word, and Com is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. 
4 



50 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



In logic, the asserting word is called the copula — it shows that the 
two ideas are coupled into a thought — and the word expressing the 
idea asserted is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs 
both offices, e. g., Corn grows, and, as it is disputed whether any 
word can assert without expressing something of the idea asserted, we 
pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar, and call both that 
which asserts and that which expresses the idea asserted, by one name 
— the predicate.* 

The maple leaves become. The verb become does not make a com- 
plete predicate ; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The 
idea may be completely expressed by adding the adjective red, denot- 
ing the quality we wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them — TJie 
maple leaves become red. 

Lizards are reptiles. The noun reptiles, naming the class of the 
animals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word 
are. Polfe's wife was Pocahontas, Pocahontas completes the predi- 
cate by presenting a second idea, which was asserts to be identical 
with that of the subject. 

When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does 
not unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish 
it as the Attribute Complement. f Connected attribute complements 
of the same verb form a Compound Attribute Complement. 

Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, 
the Predicate Adjective and the Predicate Noun. 



DEFINITION.— The Attribute Complement of a Sen- 
tence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 

* We may call the verb the predicate ; but, when it is followed by a complement, 
it is an incomplete predicate. 

t Subjective Complement may, if preferred, be used instead of Attribute Com- 
plement. 



Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements. 51 



Analysis. 

1. Slang is vulgar. 

Slang is vulg ar Explanation. — The line standing for 

■ 1 ~ v the attribute complement is, like the object 

line, a continuation of the predicate line ; but notice that the line which 

separates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward the 

subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. 

Oral Analysis. — Vulgar is the attribute complement, completing 
the predicate and expressing a quality of slang ; is vulgar is the entire 
predicate, 

2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 

3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 

4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 

5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dig- 
nified, and artificial.* 

6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of the soul. 

7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 

8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. 

9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

Explanation. — The subject names that of which the speaker says 
something. The terms in which he says it,— the predicate, — he, of 
course, assumes that the hearer already understands. Settle, then, 
which — plant or ivy — Dickens supposed the reader to know least 
about, and which, therefore, Dickens was telling him about ; and you 
settle which word — plant or ivy — is the subject. (Is it not the writer's 
poetical conception of ' ' the green ivy " that the reader is supposed not 
to possess ?) 

10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 

11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks 
of good-breeding. 

* The assertion in this sentence is true only in the main. 



52 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of 
endurance into a man. 

13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. 

14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grum- 
bling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 

15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate 
suggestions of luxurious ease. 



LESSON 30. 

ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS-CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

1. He went out as mate and came back captain. 



went 



Explanation. — Mate, like captain, is 
- an attribute complement. Some would 

mate say that the conjunction as connects mate 

to he; but we think this connection is 
^j came x captain made through the verb went, and that as 
^L is simply introductory. This is indicated 

in the diagram. 

2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. 

3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 

4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. 

5. Plato and Aristotle are called the two head-springs of all 
philosophy. 

6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 

7. He came a foe and returned a friend. 

8. I am here. I am present. 

Explanation. — The office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade 
into that of an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished 
from it. Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am, and, like an 



Objective Complements. 53 



adverb, to modify it. From their form and usual function, here, in 
this example, should be called an adverb, and present an adjective* 
9. This book is presented td you as a token of esteem and 
gratitude. 

10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless corpse. 

11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 

12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 

13. In the fable of the Discontented Pendulum, the weights- hung 
speechless. 

14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incar- 
nate in the young and scholarly Sir Thomas More. 

15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court,, and 
the gentleman and idol of the time. 



LESSON 31. 

OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory Hints. — He made the wall white. Here made does 
not fully express the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean 
to say, He made the white wall, but, He made-white (whitened) the 
wall. White helps made to express the act, and at the same time it 
denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the act. 

They made Victoria queen. Here made does not fully express the 
act performed upon Victoria. They did not make Victoria, but made- 
queen (crowned) Victoria. Queen helps made to express the act, and at 
the same time denotes the office to which the act raised Victoria. 

A word that, like che adjective white or the noun queen, helps t& 
complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object com- 
plement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to tha 
subject but to the object complement, and so is called an Objective 
Complement. 



54 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of 
the act is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the 
factitive complement or the factitive object (Lat. facer e, to make).* 

Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are call, think, 
choose, and name. 



DEFINITION.— The Objective Complement completes the 
predicate and belongs to the object complement. 

Analysis. 

1. They made Victoria queen. 

They . made , queen , Victoria Explanation. —The line that 

separates made from queen slants to- 
ward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object. 

Oral Analysis. — Queen is an objective complement completing 
made and belonging to Victoria ; made Victoria queen is the complete 
predicate. 

2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 

3. Destiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster. 

4. President Hayes chose the Hon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of 
State. 

5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English 
nobility. James L created the worthless Villiers Duke of Bucking- 
ham 

6. We should consider time as a sacred trust. 

Explanation. — As may be used simply to introduce an objective 
complement. 

7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 

8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to 
foreign courts. 

* See Lesson 37, last foot-note. 



Composition— Complements. 55 



9. Shyloek would have struck Jessica dead beside him. 

10. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 

11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 

12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 

13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 

14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very 
ark of the constitution. 



LESSON 32. 

COMPOSITION-COMPLEMENTS. 

Caution. — Be careful to distinguish an adjective com- 
plement from an adverb modifier. 

Explanation.— Mary arrived safe. We here wish to tell the con- 
dition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. 
My head feels bad (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense 
of feeling). The sun shines bright (is bright, as perceived by its 
shining). 

When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples 
above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. 

^Direction, — Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs: — 

1. The boy is running wild. 

2. The boy is running wildly about. 

3. ,They all arrived safe and sound. 

4. The day opened bright. 

5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. 

6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. 

7. The sun shines bright. 

8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. 



56 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



9. He appeared prompt and willing. 
10. He appeared promptly and willingly. 
direction. — Correct these errors and give your reasons:-^ 

1. My head pains me very bad. 

2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. 

3. Don't speak harsh. 

4. It can be bought very cheaply. 

5. I feel tolerable well. 

6. She looks beautifully. 

Direction. — Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate 
adjectives expressing the qualities as assumed, and then make com' 
plete sentences by asserting these qualities: — 
Hard ~\ 

Model. — brittle > glass. Glass is hard, brittle, and trans- 

transparent J parent. 

Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. 

[Direction. — Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute 
complements : — 

Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond. 

Direction. — Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, 
and these pronouns as attribute complements : — 

Is, was, might have been ; I, we, he, she, they. 

Remark. — Notice that these forms of the pronouns — I, we, thou, 
he, she, ye, they, and who — are never used as object complements or as 
principal words in prepositional phrases ; and that me, us, thee, him, 
Tier, them, and whom are never used as subjects or as attribute com- 
plements of sentences. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which each of the following verba 
shall have two complements — the one an object complement, the other cm 
objective complement : — 



Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 57 



Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective 
complements be introduced by as. 

Model. — They call me chief. We regard composition as very im*- 
portant. 

Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. 



LESSON 33. 

NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

Introductory Hints. — Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's 
limits temple by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is 
therefore a modifier of temple. 

The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apos- 
trophe and s ('s) added to the noun Solomon. When s has been added 
to the noun to denote more than one, this relation of possession is 
expressed by the apostrophe alone (') ; as, boys' hats. This same 
relation of possession may be expressed by the preposition of; Sol- 
omon's temple = the temple of Solomon. 

Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americans. The 
noun emperor modifies Dom Pedro by telling what Dom Pedro is 
meant. Both words name the same person. 

Solomon's and emperor, like adjectives, modify nouns ; but they are 
names of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs ; 
as, the wise Solomon's temple ; Dom Pedro, the Brazilian emperor. 
These are conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns. 

They represent two kinds of Noun Modifiers — the Possessive 
and the Explanatory. 

The Explanatory Modifier is often called an Appositive. It iden- 
tifies or explains by adding another name of the same thin^r. 



58 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Analysis. 

1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. 

favorite (Raleigh) . was -beheaded ° ral Analysis. — Elizabeth's 

vj A3 and Raleigh are modifiers of the 

^ \ James i . subject ; the first word teliing 

^* whose favorite is meant, the sec- 

ond what favorite. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh is the modified 
subject. 

2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are 
derived from Tyndale's version. 

3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 

4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 

5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog. 

6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 

7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 
632. 

8. They scaled Mount Blanc — a daring feat. 

They . scaled , Mount Bla?w f feat \ 

v \* V 

Explanation. — Feat is explanatory of the sentence, They scaled Mount 
Mane, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line 
placed after the sentence line. 

9. Bees communicate to each other * the death of the queen, by a 
rapid interlacing of the antennae. 

Explanation. — Each other may be treated as one term, or each 
may be made explanatory of bees. 

10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks — brain, blood, and 
breath. 

* For uses of each other and one another, see Lesson 124. 



Composition— Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 59 



Explanation. — Several words may together be explanatory of one. 

11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone — its shell and coat of 
armor — are on the outside of its body. 

lack-tone shell 



12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended 
in 1658. 

Explanation. — As, namely, to wit, viz., i, e., e. g., and that is m&y 
introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect 
them to the words modified. In the diagram they stand like as in 
Lesson 30. Protector is explanatory of CromwelVs. 

13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful 
nations, namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismem- 
berment of Poland. 

14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast. 

15. The petals of the daisy, day's-eye, close at night and in rainy 
weather. 



LESSON 34. 

COMPOSITION-NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. 

COMMA — RULE. — An Explanatory Modifier, when it 
does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with 
it, is set off* by the comma. 

Explanation. — The words I and should be written in capital 
* See foot-note, Lesson is. 



60 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



letters^ The phrase I and restricts words, that is, limits its appli- 
cation, and no comma is needed. 

Jacob's favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were Hackers children. 
The phrase Joseph and Benjamin explains sons without restricting, 
and therefore should be set off by the comma. 

In each of these expressions, I myself, we boys, William the Con- 
queror, the explanatory term combines closely with the word 
explained, and no comma is needed. 

Direction. — Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of 
commas in these sentences: — 

1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat- 
club. 

2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son 
<©£ a tinker. 

3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary 
ireputation. 

A. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of 
IMontezuma. 

5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 

C The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast 
friends on a raft at Tilsit. 

Direction. — Insert commas below, where they are needed, and give 
your reasons : — 

1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to 
France. 

2. My son Joseph has entered college. 

3. You blocks ! You stones ! you hard hearts ! 

4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. 

5. He himself could not go. 

6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 

7. Elizabeth Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603. 



Composition— Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 61 



Direction. — Compose sentences containing these expressions as 
explanatory modifiers : — 

The most useful metal ; the capital of Turkey ; the Imperial City ; 
the great English poets ; the hermit ; a distinguished American 
statesman. 

Direction. — Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them 
in a sentence : — 

See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit or, and note the effect. 

1. Palestine or the Holy Land . 2. New York or the Empire 

State . 3. New Orleans or the Crescent City . 4. The five 

Books of Moses or the Pentateuch . 

Remember that ('s) and (') are the possessive signs — 
(') being used when s has been added to denote more than 
one, and ('s) in other cases. 

Direction. — Copy the following, and note the use of the possessive 
sign : — 

The lady's fan ; the girl's bonnet ; a dollar's worth ; Burns's poems ; 
Brown & Co.'s business ; a day's work ; men's clothing ; children's 
toys ; those girls' dresses ; ladies' calls ; three years' interest ; five 
dollars' worth. 

Direction. — Make possessive modifiers of the following words, and 
join them to appropriate nouns: — 

Woman, women ; mouse, mice ; buffalo, buffaloes ; fairy, fairies ; 
hero, heroes ; baby, babies ; calf, calves. 

Caution. — Do not use ('s) or (') with the pronouns its, 
his, our*, yours, hers, theirs. 



62 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 35. 

NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. 

Introductory Hints. — He gave me a book. Here we have what 
many grammarians call a double object. Book, naming the thing 
acted upon, they call the direct object ; and me, naming the person 
toward whom the act is directed, they call the indirect, or dative, 
object. 

You see that me and book do not, like Comwallis and army, in 
Washington captured Comwallis and his army, form a compound 
object complement ; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for 
they do not stand in the same relation to the verb gave. The meaning 
is not, He gave me and the book. 

We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person 
to or for whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. 
If we change the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied ; 
as, He gave a book to me. He bought me a book ; He bought a book 
for me. He asked me a question ; He asked a question of me. When 
the indirect object precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or 
understood. 

Teach, tell, send, promise, permit, and lend are other examples of 
verbs that take indirect objects. 

Besides these indirect objects, nouns denoting measure, quan- 
tity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbi- 
ally, being equivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four miles an 
hour ; It weighs one pound; It is worth a dollar a yard; I went 
home that way ; The wall is ten feet six inches high. 

The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before 
nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need 
not supply one. 




Review. (53 

Analysis. 

1. They offered Caesar the crown three times. 
Tfwy ^offered ^ crown G ral Analysis. — Ccesar and times 

are nouns used adverbially, being equiv- 
alent to adverb phrases modifying the 
predicate offered. 

2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year. 

3. He sent his daughter home that way. 

4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a 
pound for his sugar. 

5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 

6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 

7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 1856. 

8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn 
an acre. 

9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants 
brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 

10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 

11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means 
of gills. 

12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor. 

13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 

14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. 

15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. 



LESSON 36. 

REVIEW. 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

Direction. — Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive. 

Give the substance of the ' ' Introductory Hints " (for example, show 



64 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



clearly what two things are essential to a complete predicate ; explain 
what is meant by a complement ; distinguish clearly the three kinds 
of complements ; show what parts of speech may be employed for 
each, and tell what general idea — action, quality, class, or identity — 
is expressed by each attribute complement or objective complement 
in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and 
rules ; explain and illustrate fully the distinction between an adjec- 
tive complement and an adverb modifier ; illustrate what is taught 
of the forms J, we, etc., me, us, etc. ; explain and illustrate the use 
of the possessive sign. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

(See pages 156-159.) 
To the Teacher.— See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 



LESSON 37. 

VERB FORMS WITH ADJECTIVAL USE AND THOSE 
WITH NOUNAL. 

Introductory Hints. — Corn grows; Corn growing. Here grow- 
ing differs from grows in lacking the power to assert. Growing is a 
form of the verb that cannot, like grows, make a complete predicate 
because it only assumes or implies that the corn does the act. Corn 
may be called the assumed subject of growing. 

Birds, singing, delight us. Here singing does duty (1) as an adjec- 
tive, describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a 
verb by expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds 
delight us. 

By singing their songs birds delight us. Here singing has the 



Verbs as Adjectives and as Nouns— Participles. 65 



nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object 
complement, songs ; and as a noun it names the act, and stands as 
the principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

Their singing so sweetly delights us. Here, also, singing has the 
nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb 
modifier, sweetly, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possess- 
ive modifier. 

This form of the verb is called the Participle (Lat. pars, a part, 
and capere, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs 
two offices — those of. a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and 
a noun. (For definition see Lesson 131.) 

Singing birds delight us. Here singing has lost its verbal nature, 
and expresses a permanent quality of birds — telling what kind of 
birds, — and consequently is a mere adjective. The singing of the 
birds delights us. Here singing is simply a noun, naming the act and 
taking adjective modifiers. 

There are two kinds of participles ; * one sharing the nature of the 

* Grammarians are not agreed as to what these words that have the nature of the 
verb and that of the noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms doing, 
writing, and injuring, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, Infinitives. They would 
also call by the same name such compound forms as being accepted, having been 
shown, and having said in these expressions : "for the purpose of being accepted ; " 
"is the having been shown over a place;' 1 "I recollect his having said that." But 
does it not tax even credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in -an, 
only one form of which followed a preposition, and that always to, could have 
developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost any prep- 
osition, and modified by the and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive ? No wonder 
the grammarian Mason says, " An infinitive in -ing, set down by some as a modifi- 
cation of the simple infinitive in -an or -en, is a perfectly unwarranted invention." 

Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon Verbal Nouns in 

-ung, -ing. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact that those verbal 

nouns never were compound, and never were or could be followed by objects. These 

words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have seen, and have objects. That they 

5 



66 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



verb and that of the adjective ; the other, the nature of the verb and 
that of the noun. Participles commonly end in ing, ed, or en. 

The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an 
object complement or an attribute complement. 



are from nouns in -ung is otherwise, and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as 
that they are from infinitives in -an. 

Others call these words Gerunds. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of the verb 
in the active voice, never found in the nominative; and never in the accusative (objec- 
tive) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a simple form of the verb in the active 
voice— the dative cage of the infinitive merely— used mainly to indicate purpose, and 
always preceded by the preposition to. To call these words in question gerunds is to 
stretch the term gerund immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it 
cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded ; sometimes (2) are used in 
the passive voice ; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than to ; sometimes (4) do 
not follow any preposition ; sometimes (5) are objects of verbs ; sometimes (6) are sub- 
jects of verbs ; sometimes (7) are modified by the ; sometimes (8) are modified by a 
noun or pronoun in the possessive ; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We 
submit that the extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations 
that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent except that 
furnished above in the extension of the term infinitive or of the term verbal noun/ 

Still others call some of these words Infinitives ; some of them Verbal Nouns ; and 
some of them Gerunds. 

Though some of these forms im -ing may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun 
or to the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle is adjectival, we have, for con- 
venience, used the term participle, as many others have, to denote all verbal forms (ex- 
cept infinitives) that partake of two natures. 

But, if different names for words with an adjectival use and words with a nounal be 
preferred, the term Participle may be restricted to those of the first class, and a name 
as fitly expressing their dual nature may be found for these of the second. Nounal 
Verb is such a name. 

To call these forms in question Verbal Nouns is to classify them as nouns ; to call 
them Nounal Verbs is to class them, as grammarians almost universally do, with verbs. 
Besides, the term Nounal Verb may help to distinguish between the true represen- 
tatives of the old verbal nouns in -ung and the so-called "gerunds " or " infinitives im 



Verbs with Adjectival Use and those with Nounal. 67 



Analysis and Parsing. 
The participle may be used as an adjective modifier, 

1. Hearing a step, I turned. 

I turned. Explanation. — The line standing for the participle 

is broken ; one part slants to represent the adjective 
\*ing i step nature of the participle, and the other is horizontal to 
v represent its verbal nature. 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase hearing a step is a modifier of the 
subject ; * the principal word is hearing, which is completed by the 
noun step; step is modified by a. 

Parsing. — Hearing is a form of the verb called participle because 
the act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of 
an adjective and that of a verb. 

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. 
Explanation. — The complement is here modified by a participle 

phrase. 

3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down- 
ward through the back-bone. 

4. Van T wilier sat in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the cele- 
brated forest of the Hague. 

Explanation. — The principal word of a prepositional phrase is 
here modified by a participle phrase. 

5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had amused the 
populace with the sports of the amphitheater. 

The participle may be used as an attribute comple- 
ment. 

6. The natives came crowding around. 

Explanation. — Crowding here completes the predicate came, and 

* Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifies the predicate also. I turned when 
or because I heard a step. See Lesson 79. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



belongs to the subject natives. The natives are represented as per- 
forming the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. 
The assertive force of the predicate came seems to extend over both 
verbs.* 

7. The city lies sleeping. 

ryjng _ 

8. They stood terrified. 




9. The philosopher sat buried in 
thought. 

10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving. 

The participle may be used as an objective comple- 
ment. 

11. He kept me waiting. 

Explanation. — Waiting completes kept and relates to the object 
complement me. Kept-waiting expresses the complete act performed 
upon me. He kept-waiting me = He detained me. The relation of 
waiting to me may be seen by changing the form of the verb ; as, I 
was kept waiting. See Lesson 31. 

12. I found my book growing dull.f 

* Some grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as adver- 
bial. But is crowding any more adverbial here than are pale and trembling in "The 
natives came pale and trembling " ? 

t It will be seen by this and following examples that we extend the application of 
the term objective complement beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In " I struck the 
man dead" the condition expressed by dead is the result of the act expressed by struck. 
In " I found the man dead" the condition is not the result of the act, and so gram- 
marians say that in this second example dead should be treated simply as an " apposi- 
tive" adjective modifying man. While dead does not belong to man as expressing 
the result of the act, it is made to belong to man through the asserting force of the 
verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of man. Dead helps found to express the 
act. Not found, but found-dead tells what was done to the man. 

If we put the sentence in the passive form, " The man was found dead" it will be 



Participles— Continued. 69 



^ Explanation.— The diagram represent- 

\ *oin<r . \ dull ^ n g the ph rase complement is drawn above 



t f j 1 7, 00 i. the complement line, on which it is made 
I u to rest by means of a support. All that 



\J7 

\ stands on the complement line is regarded 
as the complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points 
toward the object complement. The adjective dull completes growing and 
belongs to book, the assumed subject of growing. 

13. He owned himself defeated. 

14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together 
in turbulent mobs. 

15. I felt my heart beating faster. 

16. You may imagine me sitting there. 

17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned 
into a king. 

LESSON 38. 

PARTICIPLES (NOUNAL VERBS)-CONTINUED. 
Analysis and Parsing. 
The participle may be used as principal word in a 
prepositional phrase. 

seen that dead is more than a mere modifier ; it belongs to man through the assertive 
force of ivas found. If dead is here merely an " appositive " adjective, " I found the 
man dead " must equal " I found the man, who was dead " (or, " and he was dead ,, ) > 
The two sentences obviously are not equal. " I caught him asleep " does not mean, 
"I caught him, and he was asleep." 

If, in the construction discussed above, dead is an objective complement, quiet, 
stirring, and (to) stir in the following sentences are objective complements : — 

I saw the leaves quiet. 
I saw the leaves stirring. 
I saw the leaves stir. 

The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to differ essen- 
tially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78. 



70 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



1. We receive good by doing good. 

We , receive , good Explanation.— The line representing the 

participle here is broken ; the first part repre- 
$ oi , sents the participle as a noun, and the other 

as a verb. 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase by doing good is a modifier of the 
predicate ; by introduces the phrase ; the principal word is doing, 
which is completed by the noun good. 

Parsing. — Doing is a participle ; like a noun, it follows the prepo- 
sition by, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement. 

2. Portions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 

3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand per- 
sons. 

4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and 
vigorously. 

5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suf- 
fered. {Suffering is here a noun.) 

The participle may be the principal word in a phrase 
used as a subject or as an object complement. 

6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 

™l irtng i letter 

k =, v-A^> W Explanation.— The diagram of the 

subject phrase is drawn above the sub- 

x , «. iect line. All that rests on the subject 

i y\ . secured , position z. , , , . . 

— ^ — ^H — \ hne is regarded as the subject. 

Oral Analysis. — The phrase your writing that letter so neatly is 
the subject ; the principal word of it is writing, which is completed by 
letter ; writing, as a noun, is modified by your, and, as a verb, by the 
adverb phrase so neatly. 

7. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. 



Participles— Continued. 71 



8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consent. 

9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. 

The participial form may be used as a mere noun or 
a mere adjective. 

10. The cackling of geese saved Rome. 

11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many* a long> 
forgotten song. 

Explanation. — Many modifies song after song has been limited by 
a and long-forgotten. 

12. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. 

13. He was a squeezing, grasping, hardened old sinner. 

The participle may be used in independent or abso- 
lute phrases. 

14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the 
river. 

Explanation. — The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists 
of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See 
Lesson 44. 

15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's 
"constitutionals." 

* " Manig man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann, Latin mul- 
tu8 vir y and the like, until the thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to 
emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number. 11 — Prof. F. A. 
March. 



72 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 39. 

COMPOSITION-PARTICIPLES. 

COMMA— RULE.— The Participle used as an adjective mod- 
ifier, with the words belonging to it, is set off* by the comma 
unless restrictive. 

Explanation. — A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with 
a song. TJie bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting describes 
without restricting ; sitting restricts — limits the application of bird 
to a particular bird. 

Direction. — Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in 
Lesson 37. 

Caution. — In using a participle, be careful to leave no 
doubt as to what you intend it to modify. 

Direction. — Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, 
giving your reasons : — 

1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to 
a small family containing all the improvements. 

2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built 
of brick. 

3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor hand- 
somely trimmed and bought at a bargain are offered cheap. 

4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in 
gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 

5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevo- 
lent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. 

* An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas ; at the begin- 
ning or at the end, by one comma. 



Verbs as Nouns— Infinitives. 73 



Direction. — Recast these sentences, making the reference of the 
participle clear, and punctuating correctly : — 

Model. — Climbing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean teas 
seen. Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. 
Climbing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean. 

1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 

2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 

3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which each of these three parti- 
ciples shall be used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word 
in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as 
a subject or as an object complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere 
noun, and in an absolute phrase : — 

Buzzing, leaping, waving. 



LESSON 40. 

VERBS AS NOUNS-INFINITIVES. 

Introductory Hints. — I came to see you. Here the verb see, like 
the participle, lacks asserting power — / to see asserts nothing. See, 
following the preposition to,* names the act and is completed by 
you, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In office it is 
like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from 
many grammarians has received the same name — some calling both 
gerunds, and others calling both infinitives. It differs from this 
participle in form, and in following only the preposition to. Came 
to see = came for seeing. 

This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase 

* For the discussion of to with the infinitive, see Lesson 134. 



74 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



used as a subject or as an object complement ; as, To read good 
hooks is profitable ; I like to read good books. Here also the form with 
to is equivalent to the participle form reading. Reading good books 
is profitable. 

As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, 
without limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive (Lat. infi- 
nitus, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, 
like the participle, may have what is called an assumed subject. The 
assumed subject denotes that to which the action or being expressed 
by the participle or the infinitive belongs. 

Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first 
example given above, and in such cases to expresses relation, and per- 
forms its full function as a preposition ; but, when the infinitive phrase 
is used as subject or as object complement, the to expresses no rela- 
tion. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the 
meaning of the verb. 

The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the 
different complements. 



Analysis and Parsing. 
The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective 
modifier or an adverb modifier. 

1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. 



Oral Analysis. — To in- 

hot-house , is K trap 

I \* \ troduces the phrase ; catch 

is the principal word, and 

sunbeams completes it. 



T 



catch | sunbeams 



Parsing.— To is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing 
the relation, in sense, of the principal word to trap ; catch is a form 
of the verb called infinitive ; like a noun, it follows the preposition to 



Verbs as Nouns— Infinitives. 75 



and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by sun- 
beams. 

2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and 
decision of character. 

8. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were 
defeated. 

4. We will strive to please you. 

Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to 
modify the predicate. 

5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 

6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. 
Explanation. — Happy completes make and relates to us. 

7 Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 
Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to 
modify the adjective hard. To heal = to be healed. 

8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to 
seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle pal- 
ace, and again to sell off and wander. 

9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. 

Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to 
modify the adverb enough. To eat = to be eaten. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as subject or 
complement. 

10. To be good is to be great. 

\^ \ Explanation.— lb, in each of these 

good \ be v great phrases, shows no relation — it serves merely 



to introduce. The complements good and 
y\ is v y^ great are adjectives used abstractly, having 

no noun to relate to. 

11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 



76 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 

13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 

14. He seemed to be innocent. 

Explanation. — The infinitive phrase here performs the office of 
an adjective. To be innocent == innocent, 

15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 

16. We should learn to govern ourselves. 

Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used as an object 
complement. 

17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. 



LESSON 41. 

INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The infinitive phrase may be used after a prepo- 
sition as the principal term of another phrase. 

1. My friend is about to leave me. 

Zeane , me 

Explanation. — The preposition about 
introduces the phrase used as attribute 
complement ; the principal part is the in- 
finitive phrase to leave me. 

2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 

3. No way remains but to go on. 

Explanation. — But is here a preposition. 

The infinitive and its assumed subject may form 
the principal term in a phrase introduced by the prep- 
osition for. 




Infinitives— Continued. 77 



4. For us to know our faults is profitable. 



Explanation.— For introduces the 

^ Tcnow i faults subject phrase; the principal part of 

^ the entire phrase is us to know our faults; 



the principal word is ws, which is modi- 
fy I is v profitable fi e d by the phrase to know our faults. 

5. God never made his work for man to mend. 
Explanation. — The principal term of the phrase for man to mend 

is not mom, but man to mend. 

6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as an explana- 
tory modifier. 

7. It is easy to find fault. 

\ Explanation.— The infinitive phrase to 

find , fault find fault explains the subjects. Read the 

sentence without it, and you will see the real 
It fy\^) , is v easy nature of the phrase. This use of it as a 

substitute for the real subject is a very 
common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow 
the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts. 

8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 

9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 

10. It is not all of life to live. 

11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. 

The infinitive phrase may be used as objective 
complement. 

12. He made me wait. 

Explanation. — The infinitive wait (here used without to) com- 
pletes made and relates to me. He made-wait me = He detained me. 

See "Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as ob- 
jective complements, Lesson 37. Compare I saw him do it with I saw 



78 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



him doing it. Compare also He made the stick bend — equaling He 
made-bend (= bent) the stick — with He made the stick straight — equal- 
ing He made-straight (= straightened) the stick. 

The relation of these objective complements to me, him, and stick 
may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus : I 
was made to wait ; He was seen to do it, He was seen doing it ; The 
stick was made to bend; The stick was made straight. 

13. We found the report to be true.* 

\ "he y true 

"We j found , y\ , report 

14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. f 

15. I saw the leaves stir4 

Explanation. — Stir is an infinitive without the to. 

16. Being persuaded by Poppaea, Nero caused his mother, Agrip- 
pina, to be assassinated. 

* Some prefer to treat the report to be true as an object clause because it is equiva- 
lent to the clause that the report is true. But many expressions logically equivalent 
are entirely different in grammatical construction ; as, I desire Ms promotion ; I desire 
him to be promoted ; I desire that he should be promoted. Besides, to teach that him 
is the subject, and to be promoted the predicate, of a clause would certainly be 
confusing. 

t Notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence He 
commanded him to lower the bridge. Him represents the one to whom the command 
Is given, and to lower the bridge is the object complement. This last sentence = He 
commanded him that he should lower the bridge. Compare He told me to go with He 
told (to) me a story ; also He taught me to read with He taught (to) me reading. 

In such sentences as (13) and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that 
the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun 
and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the infinitive and its assumed 
subject may be treated as a kind of phrase object, equivalent to a clause. This con- 
struction is similar to the Latin " accusative with the infinitive.' 1 

X See pages 68 and 69, foot-note. 



Infinitives— Continued. 79 



LESSON 42. 

INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The infinitive phrase may be used independently.* 

Explanation. — In the diagram the independent element must 
stand by itself. 

1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 

2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 

3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette 
were executed. 

Infinitives and Participles. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 

5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from 
the heat of the sun. 

6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having 
changed so. 

7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 

8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole. 

9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 

10. To be, or not to be, — that is the question. 

11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 

12. Food, keeping the body in health by makings it warm and re- 
pairing its waste, is a necessity. 

13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another 
time. 

* These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. 
For the infinitive after as, than, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitives 
unite with other verbs to make compound forms ; as, have walked, shall walk. 



80 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of the 
window, to drown herself. 

15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smok- 
ing and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. 



LESSON 43. 

COMPOSITION-THE INFINITIVE. 

Direction. — Change the infinitives in these sentences into parti- 
ciples, and the participles into infinitives : — 

Notice that to, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is 
changed to toward, for, of, at, in, or on, when the infinitive is 
changed to a participle. 

1. I am inclined to believe it. 6. There is a time to laugh. 

2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 

3. She will be grieved to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 

4. They trembled to hear such 9. They delight to do it. 

words. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 

6. It will serve for amusing the 11. Stones are used in ballasting 

children. vessels. 

Direction. — Improve these sentences by changing the participles 
into infinitives, and the infinitives into participles : — 

1. We began ascending the 3. I commenced to write a letter. 

mountain. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 

2. He did not recollect to have 5. It is not wise complaining. 

paid it. 
Direction. — Vary these sentences as in the model: — 
Model. — Rising early is healthful ; To rise early is healthful ; It is 

healthful to rise early ; For one to rise early is healthful. 
(Notice that the explanatory phrase after it is not set off by the 

comma.) 



Words and Phrases Used Independently. 81 



1. Reading good books is profit- 4. Indorsing another's paper is 

able. dangerous. 

2. Equivocating is disgraceful. 5. Swearing is sinful. 

3. Slandering is base. 

Direction. — Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive 
phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in 
three as a noun. 

Direction. — Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be 
followed by an infinitive without the to: — 

Model. — We saw the sun sink behind the mountain. 
Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. 



LESSON 44. 

WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY. 

Introductory Hints. — In this Lesson we wish to notice words and* 
phrases that in certain uses have no grammatical connection with the 
rest of the sentence. 

The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus serves 
only to arrest attention, and is independent by address. 

Poor man ! he never came bach again. Poor man is independent by 
exclamation. 

TJiy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Rod and staff simply call 
attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are inde- 
pendent by pleonasm — a construction used sometimes for rhetorical 
effect, but out of place in ordinary speech. 

His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master 
being absent logically modifies the verb was neglected by assigning the 
cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and 
is therefore grammatically independent. This is called the absolute 



82 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



phrase. An absolute phrase consists of a noun or a pronoun used 
independently with a modifying participle. 

His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking is a 
participle without connection, and with the adverb generally forms an 
independent phrase. 

To confess the truth, I was wrong. The infinitive phrase is inde- 
pendent. 

The adverbs well, now, why, there are sometimes independent ; as, 
Well, life is an enigma ; Now, that is strange ; Why, it is already 
noon ; There are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. 

Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have 
learned, and hence are independent. 

Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independ- 
ent of the rest of the sentence ; as, I stake my fame {and I had 
fame), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast. 



Analysis. 

1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. 
Explanation. — Tom is independent by address. But is an adjective 

modifying shadows. 

2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three- 
story intellects with skylights. 

Explanation. — Often, as in this sentence, there is used idiomatically, 
merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having 
faded out of the word. To express place, another there may follow the 
predicate ; as, There is gold there. 

3. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 

4. Hope lost, all is lost. 

5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 

6. Why, this is not. revenge. 

7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. 



Composition— Independent Words and Phrases. 83 



8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 

9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst enemies. 

10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive to-morrow. 

11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 

12. Mr. President, I shall enter on no encomium upon Massa- 
chusetts. 

13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. 

14. But the enemies of tyranny — their path leads to the scaffold. 

15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman !) managed the matter 
retreat , Vegan extremely well. 

16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the 
fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Mos- 
cow. 

See Lesson 35. 




LESSON 45. 

COMPOSITION-INDEPENDENT WORDS AND 
PHRASES. 

COMMA— RULE.— Words and phrases independent or nearly 
so are set off by the comma. 

Remark. — Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by 
the exclamation point ; and there, used merely to introduce, is never 
set off by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is 
slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used ; but, if it is more 
abrupt, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expres- 
sion can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed 
within marks of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the 
dash and the marks of parenthesis, see Lesson 148.) 

Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like however, 
of course, indeed, in short, by the lye, for instance, and accordingly, do 



84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a 
whole ; as, Lee did not, however, follow Washington's orders. 

Direction. — Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of inde- 
pendent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained. 

Direction. — Write short sentences in which these words and 
phrases, used in a mariner nearly independent, shall occur, and 
punctuate them properly : — 

In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, 
however, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, 
too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. 

Direction. — Write short sentences in which these words shall 
modify some particular word or phrase so closely as not to be set off 
by the comma : — 

Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

(See pages 160-162.) 
To the Teacher.— See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 



LESSON 46. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO 

MEANING. 

Introductory Hints. — In the previous Lessons we have considered 
the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let 
us now look at it as a whole. 

The mountains lift up their heads. This sentence is used simply to 
affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a Declarative Sentence. 

Do the mountains lift up their heads ? This sentence expresses a 
question, and is called an Interrogative Sentence. 



Sentences Classified with Respect to Meaning. 85 



Lift up your heads. This sentence expresses a command, and is 
called an Imperative Sentence. Such expressions as You must go, 
You shall go are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have 
not the imperative form. 

How the mountains lift up their heads ! In this sentence the 
thought is expressed with strong emotion. It is called an Exclama- 
tory Sentence. Hoiv and what usually introduce such sentences ; 
but a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may be- 
come exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his 
feelings ; as, It is impossible ! Hoiv can I endure it ! Talk of hypoc- 
risy after this ! 

DEFINITION. — A Declarative Sentence is one that is used 
to affirm or to deny. 

DEFINITION.— An Interrogative Sentence is one that 
expresses a question. 

DEFINITION.— An Imperative Sentence is one that ex- 
presses a command or an entreaty. 

DEFINITION.— An Exclamatory Sentence is one that 
expresses sudden thought or strong feeling.* 

INTERROGATION POINT— RULE.— Every direct interroga- 
tive sentence should he followed by an interrogation point. 

Remark. — When an interrogative sentence is made a part of an- 
other sentence, it may be direct ; as, He asked, " What is the trouble ?" 
or indirect ; as, He asked what the trouble was. (See Lesson 74.) 



Analysis. 

Direction. — Before analyzing these sentences, classify ihem, and 
justify the terminal r.iarJcs of punctuation : — 

1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. 

* For punctuation, see page 42. 



86 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, 
and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of 
the mortal part ? 

3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. 
(The subject is you understood.) 

4. How wonderful is the advent of spring ! 

5. Oh ! a dainty plant is the ivy green ! 

6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 

7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of 
his age. 

8. How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to him- 
self ! 

9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 

10. Lend me your ears. 

11. What brilliant rings the pl'anet Saturn has ! 

12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character ? 

13. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, 
on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead ! 

15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag 
into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, 
and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon 
and the shouts of his triumph ? 



LESSON 47. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

1. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religion. — Words- 
worth. 

2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu 



Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 87 



would permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. 
— Stephen. 

3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry ; a 
flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory 
ministry to-day. — Conway. 

4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of 
foaming phrase. — Lowell. 

5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew 
into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of 
Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. — De 
Quincey. 

6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words 
— health, peace, and competence.— Pope. 

7.* Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. — Tyler. 

8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. — 
Longfellow. 

9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plan- 
tagenets, become noble by association. — F. W. Robertson. 

10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night. — 
Beeoher. 

11. f In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went 
gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain 
still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair. — Curtis. 

* Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this Lesson, are called 
Epigrams. What quality do you think they impart to one's style ? 

t In Ruth of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called Personification 
— a figure in which things are raised above their proper plane, taken up toward or to 
that of persons. Things take on dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of 
being. 

Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an Allusion. All the 
interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us this allusion gathers about so 
common a thing as memory. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 48. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW- 
Analysis. 

1. By means of steam man realizes the fable of iEolus's bag, and 
carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat. — Emerson, 

2. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes 
the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrec- 
tion. — Holmes. 

3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance 
of the Old. — Canning. 

4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the 
•constant linguistic exercise of that organ. — Warner. 

5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb 
ticketed upon it. — Earle. 

6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of 
•despotism. — Phillips. 

7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so. — Gail 
Hamilton. 

8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. — Lamb. 

9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes 
and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm. — 



10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved 
beyond the power of science. 

Explanation.— Beyond the power of science = impossible, and is 
therefore an attribute complement. The preposition beyond shows 
the relation, in sense, of power to the subject phrase. 

11. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories 
by turning somersets in the air. — Longfellow. 



Arrangement— Usual Order. 89 

LESSON 49. 

REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION. 

Direction. — Give the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for 
the marks of punctuation used in Lessons 4A, 46, 47, and 48. 



LESSON 50. 

REVIEW. 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

Direction. — Review from Lesson 37 to Lesson 46, inclusive. 

Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review 
Lessons, the substance of the "Introductory Hints;" repeat and 
illustrate definitions and rules ; illustrate the different uses of the- 
participle and the infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding the 
use of the participle ; illustrate the different ways in which words 
and phrases may be grammatically independent, and the punctuation 
of these independent elements. 



LESSON 51. 

ARRANGEMENT-USUAL ORDER. 

To the Teacher.— If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming to a 
prescribed course of study, it is found desirable to abridge these Lessons on Arrange- 
ment and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be omitted, and the pupil may 
be required to illustrate the positions of the different parts, in both the Usual and 
the Transposed order, and then to read the examples given, making the required 
changes orally. 

The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three. 

Let us recall the Usual Order of words and phrases in 
a simple declarative sentence. 



90 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



The verb follows the subject, and the object complement 
follows the verb. 

Example. — Drake circumnavigated the globe. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write three sentences each with an 
object complement. 

An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, 
and an explanatory modifier follows it. 

Examples. — Mans life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver, came 
down from the Mount. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences, two with 
possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing 
an adjective. 

The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, 
fallows the verb, the objective complement follows the 
object complement, and the indirect object precedes the 
direct. 

Examples. — Egypt is the valley of the Nile. Eastern life is dreamy. 
They made Bonaparte consul. They offered Cwsar a crown. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences illustrating 
the positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these 

offices. 

If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely 
modifying the noun stands nearest to it ; if of the same 
rank, they stand in the order of their length — the shortest 
first. 

Examples. — Two honest young men enlisted. Cassius has a lean 
and hungry look. A rock, huge and precipitous, stood in our path. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating 
the relative position of adjectives before and after the noun. 

An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the 
phrase which it modifies ; precedes or follows (more fre- 



Arrangement— Transposed Order. 91 



quently follows) the simple verb or the verb with its com- 
plement ; and follows one or more words of the verb if the 
verb is compound. 

Examples. — The light far in the distance is so very bright. I soon 
found him. I hurt him badly. He had often been there. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these 
several positions of the adverb. 

Phrases follow the words they modify ; if a word has two 
or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand 
nearest to it. 

Examples. — Facts once established are facts forever. He sailed for 
Liverpool on Monday. 

Direction. — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the 
positions of participle and prepositional phrases. 



LESSON 52. 

ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

Introductory Hints. — The usual order of words, spoken of in 
the preceding Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an Eng- 
lish sentence ; on the contrary, great freedom in the placing of words 
and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of the words be 
kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, in 
impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may deviate 
widely from this order. 

A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his words ; 
more of it lies in some words than in others. Under the influence 
of strong feeling, one may move words out of their accustomed place, 
and, by thus attracting attention to them, give them additional 
importance to the reader or hearer. 

When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual 
place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we 
have what we may call the Transposed Order. I dare not venture 
to go down into the cabin — Venture to go down into the cabin I dare 



92 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



not. You shall die — Die you shall. Their names will forever live 
on the lips of the people — Their names will, on the lips of the people f 
forever live. 

When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or 
the principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme 
example of the transposed order ; as, A yeoman had he. Strange 
is the magic of a turban. The whole of a verb is not placed at the 
beginning of a declarative sentence except in poetry ; as, Flashed all 
their sabers bare. 

To the Teacher. — Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and 
Contraction, we say change, transpose, or restore, the pupils need not write the sen- 
tences. They should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show 
what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. 

Direction. — Change these sentences from the usual to the trans- 
posed order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain 
the effect: — 



1. He could not avoid it. 

2. They were pretty lads. 

3. The great Queen died in the 

year 1603. 

4. He would not escape. 

5. I must go. 

6. She seemed young and sad* 

7. He cried, "My son, my son ! " 



8. He ended his tale here. 

9. The moon shone bright. 

10. A frozen continent lies beyond 

the sea. 

11. He was a contentious man. 

12. It was quoted so. 

13. Monmouth had never been 

accused of cowardice. 



Direction. — Change these sentences 
usual, and explain the effect: — 

1. Him the Almighty Power 8. 

hurled headlong. 9. 

2. Volatile he was. 10. 

3. Victories, indeed, they were. 

4. Of noble race the lady came. 11. 

5. Slowly and sadly we laid him 

down. 12. 

6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 

7. This double office the parti- 13. 

ciple performs. 14. 



from the transposed order to 4 he 

. That gale I well remember. 

Churlish he often seemed. 

One strong thing I find here 
below. 

Overhead I heard a mur- 
mur. 

To their will we must suc- 
cumb. 

Him they hanged. 

Freely ye have received. 



Arrangement— Transposed Order. 93 



Direction. — Write five sentences, each with one of the following 
nouns or adjectives as a complement ; and five, each with one of the 
adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier ; then transpose the ten with 
these same words moved to the front, and explain the effect : — 

Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and 
deeply, then, under foot. 

Direction. — Transpose these sentences by placing the italicized 
words last, and note the effect: — 

1. The clouds lowering upon our house are buried in the deep bosom 
of the ocean. 

2. iEneas did bear from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the 
old Anchises. 

3. Such a heart beats in the breast of my people. 

4. The great fire roared up the deep and wide chimney. 

Direction. — Change these to the usual order : — 

1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 

2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its 
proper price, displayed. 

3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring 
of the family, suddenly stopped. 

4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the 
earth, concealed. 

5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in 
school, the most difficult and valuable. 

Direction. — Write three sentences, each with the following noun 
or adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then 
transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go : — 

Mountains, glad, by and by. 



LESSON 53. 

ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

Direction. — Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving 
the object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell 
what is lost by the change :— 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 

2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 

3. Me restored he to mine office. 

4. A changed France have we. 

5. These evils hath sin wrought. 

Direction. — Transpose, these sentences by moving the object com* 
plement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change ;— 

1. The dial-plate exclaimed, " Lazy wire ! " 

2. The maiden has such charms. 

3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 

4. I will make one effort more to save you. 

5. The king does possess great power. 

6. You have learned much in this short journey. 

Direction. — Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as 
object complements, and then restore them to their usual order : — 
Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. 

Direction. — Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving 
the attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell 
what is lost by the change : — 

1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 

2. Feet was I to the lame. 

3. A mighty man is he. 

4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 

5. A giant towered he among men. 

Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute com* 
plement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change : — 

1. We are merry brides. 

2. Washington is styled the "Father of his Country. " 

3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 

4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 

5. Henry VIII. had become a despot. 

Direction, — Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three 
sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them : — 

Rock, desert, fortress. 

Direction. — Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving 
the adjective complement and the verb to their customary places : — 



Arrangement— Transposed Order- 95 



1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 

2. Good and upright is the Lord. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle. 

3. Hotter grew the air. 9. Wise are all his ways. 

4. Pale looks your Grace. 10. Wide open stood the doors. 

5. Dark rolled the waves. 11. Weary had he grown. 

6. Louder waxed the applause. 12. Faithful proved he to the last. 
Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the adjective com' 

plement and the verb : — 

1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 

2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 

3. The air seemed deep and dark. 

4. She had grown tall and queenly. 

5. The peacemakers are blessed. 

6. I came into the world helpless. 

7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 

8. The fall of that house was great. 

9. The uproar became intolerable. 
10. The secretary stood alone. 

Direction. — Write five transposed sentences, each with one of these 
adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to the 
usual order : — 

Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. 



LESSON 54. 

ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED ORDER. 

Direction. — Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the 
adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss : — 

1. Then burst his mighty heart. 8. Off went his bonnet. 

2. Here stands the man. 9. Well have ye judged. 

3. Crack ! went the ropes. 10. On swept the lines. 

4. Down came the masts. 11. There dozed the donkeys. 

5. So died the great Columbus of 12. Boom ! boom ! went the guns. 

the skies. 13. Thus waned the afternoon. 

6 Tictac ! tictac ! go the wheels 14. There thunders the cataract 

of thought. age after age. 

7. Away went Gilpin. 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and 
the verb : — 



1. I will never desert Mr. Mieaw- 

ber. 

2. The great event occurred soon 

after. 

3. The boy stood there with dizzy 

brain. 

4. The Spaniard's shot went 

whing ! whing ! 

5. Catiline shall no longer plot 

her ruin. 



6. A sincere word was never 

utterly lost. 

7. It stands written so. 

8. Venus was yet the morning 

star. 

9. You must speak thus. 

10. Lady Impudence goes up to 

the maid. 

11. Thy proud waves shall be 

stayed here. 



Direction.- 

adverbs : — 



- Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these 



Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never. 



Direction. — Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the 
phrase and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss : — 

1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 

2. Seven years after the Restora- 

tion appeared Paradise Lost. 



3. Into the valley of death rode 

the six hundred. 

4. To such straits is a kaiser 

driven. 

5. Upon such a grating hinge 

opened the door of his daily 
life. 

6. Between them lay a mountain 

ridge. 



7. In purple was she robed. 

8. Near the surface are found 
the implements of bronze. 

9. Through the narrow bazaar 

pressed the demure donkeys. 

10. In those days came John the 

Baptist. 

11. On the 17th of June, 1775, was 

fought the battle of Bunker 
Hill. 

12. Three times were the Romans 

driven back. 



Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and 
the verb : — 

1. The disciples came at the same 3. An ancient and stately hall 

time. stood near the village. 

2. The dreamy murmur of insects 4. His trusty sword lay by his 

was heard over our heads. side. 



Arrangement— Interrogative Sentences. 97 



5. Pepin eventually succeeded to 8. The bridle is red with the 

Charles Martel. sign of despair. 

6. The house stands somewhat 9. I have served in twenty cam- 

back from the street. paigns. 

7. Our sphere tarns on its axis. 10. Touch proper lies in the fin- 

ger-tips and in the lips. 

Direction. — Write ten sentences in the usual order, using these 
prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences, and 
compare the tivo orders: — 

Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. 

Direction. — Write six sentences in the transposed order, beginning 
them with these words: — 

There (independent), nor, neither. 



LESSON 55. 

ARRANGEMENT-INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, 
the order is usual. 

Examples. — Who came last evening ? What star shines brightest ? 

Direction. — Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word 
below as a subject ; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of 
the subject ; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the sub- 
ject :— 

Who, which, what. 

If the interrogative word is object complement or attri- 
bute complement or a modifier of either, the order is 
transposed. 

Examples. — Whom did you see ? What are personal conse- 
quences ? Which course will you choose ? 

Direction. — Write an interrogative sentence with the first word 
below as object complement, and another with the second word as at- 
tribute complement. Write four with the third and the fourth as 
7 



The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



complements, and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of 
the complement : — 
Whom, who, which, what. 

If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is 
transposed. 

Examples. — Why is the forum crowded ? Where are the flowers, 
the fair young flowers ? 

Direction. — Write five interrogative sentences, using these ad- 



How, when, where, whither, why. 

If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands 
after the verb when this is simple ; after the first word 
of it when it is compound. 

Examples. — Have you your lesson ? Has the gentleman finished ? 

Direction. — Write six interrogative sentences, using these words : — 

Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must 
see. 

Direction. — Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson 
into declarative sentences. 



LESSON 56. 

ARRANGEMENT-IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY 
SENTENCES. 

The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sen- 
tence ; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the 
transposed order. 

Examples. — Praise ye the Lord. Give {thou) me three grains of 
corn. 

Direction. — Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which 
the subject shall be omitted ; and in five, expressed : — 

Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote. 



Contraction of Sentences. 99 

Although any sentence may without change of order 
become exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sen- 
tences ordinarily begin with how or what, and are usu- 
ally in the transposed order. 

Examples. — How quietly the child sleeps ! How excellent is thy 
loving-kindness ! What visions have I seen ! What a life his was ! 

Direction. — Write six exclamatory sentences with the word how 
modifying (1) an adjective, (2) a vert, and (3) an adverb — in three sen- 
tences let the verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write 
four sentences with the word what modifying (1) an object comple- 
ment and (2) an attribute complement — in two sentences let the verb 
follow, and in two precede, the subject. 



LESSON 57, 

CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 

Direction. — Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated mod- 
ifiers and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last : — 

1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, 
and a great writer. 

2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alli- 
ances, they became powerful. 

3. Samuel Adams's nabits were simple and frugal and unostenta- 
tious. 

4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental ! 

5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 

6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remon- 
strances and resolutions and defiance. 

7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of 
nations. 

Direction. — Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the 
preposition, and the conjunction : — 

1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 

2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 



100 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 

4. Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. 
Direction. — Write six sentences, each with one of these words used 

four times ; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the 
repetition and of the omission: — 

Poor, how, with, through, or, and. 

Direction. — Expand these sentences by supplying subjects : — 

1. Give us this day our daily 5. Where hast been these six 

bread. months ? 

2. Why dost stare so ? 6. Bless me ! 

3. Thank you, sir. 7. Save us. 

4. Hear me for my cause. 

Direction. — Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of 
it:— 

1. Nobody there. 6. Short, indeed, his career. 

2. Death to the tyrant. 7. When Adam thus to Eve. 

3. All aboard ! 8. I must after him. 

4. All hands to the pumps ! 9. Thou shalt back to France. 

5. What to me fame ? 10. Whose footsteps these ? 

Direction. — Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and 
note the loss in vivacity : — 

1. Upon them with the lance. 10. Shine, sir ? 

2. At your service, sir. 11. Back to thy punishment, false 

3. Why so unkind ? fugitive. 

4. Forward, the light brigade ! 12. On will: the dance. 

5. Half-past nine. 13. Strange, strange ! 

6. Off with you. 14. Once more unto the breach. 

7. My kingdom for a horse ! 15. Away, away ! 

8. Hence, you idle creatures ! 16. Impossible ! 

9. Coffee for two. 

Direction. — Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb : — 

1. Art thou gone ? 6. How great is the mystery ! 

2. Will you take your chance ? 7. Canst thou wonder ? 

3. His career was ably run. 8. May a prosperous voyage be 

4. Are you a captain ? to you. 

5. May long life be to the republic. 9. Are you here ? 



Review. 101 

Direction. — Contract these by omitting both subject and verb, and 
note the gain in force and animation : — 

1. I offer a world for sale. 6. Bring ye lights there. 

2. Now, then, go you to break- 7. It is true, sir. 

fast. 8. We will drink a health to 

3. Sit you down, soothless in- Preciosa. 

suiter. 9. I offer a penny for your 

4. I want a word, with you, wife. thoughts. 

5. Those are my sentiments, mad- 10. Whither are you going so 

am. early ? 

Direction. — Construct ten full sentences, using in each, one of 
these adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by 
omitting both subject and verb : — 

Why, hence, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peaches, room, for 
the guns, water. 



LESSON 58. 

REVIEW. 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. 

Direction. — Review from Lesson 51 to Lesson 57, inclusive. 

Illustrate the different positions — Usual and Transposed — that the 
words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take ; illustrate the 
different positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, 
and of an exclamatory sentence ; illustrate the different ways of con- 
tracting sentences. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

(See pages 162-165.) 

To the Teacher.— See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 



102 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 59. 

COMPLEX SENTENCE-ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

Introductory Hints. — The sentences given for analysis in the pre- 
ceding Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They 
are called Simple Sentences. 

A discreet youth makes friends. In Lesson 17 you learned that you 
could expand the adjective discreet into a phrase, and say, A youth 
of discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can 
expand it into an expression that asserts, and say, A youth that is 
discreet makes friends. This part of the sentence and the other part, 
A youth makes friends, containing each a subject and a predicate, we 
call Clauses. 

The adjective clause that is discreet, performing the office of a 
single word, we call a Dependent Clause ; A youth makes friends, 
not performing such office, we call an Independent Clause. 

The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent 
clause, we call a Complex Sentence. 

A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an 
Adjective Clause. 



Analysis. 

1. They that touch pitch will be denied. 

The?/ , will be defiled Explanation.— The relative importance 

' of the two clauses is shown by their position, 

by their connection, and by the difference in 
the shading of the lines. The pronoun that 
that \ | touch , pitch . g written 0K the sub j ect line of the depend- 

ent clause. That performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is 
shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by, slanting lines to the 
words they modify, you learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a 
modifier of they. 



Complex Sentence— Adjective Clause. 103 



Oral Analysis. — This is a complex sentence because it consists of 
an independent clause and a dependent clause. They will be defiled 
is the independent clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. 
That touch pitch is a modifier of they because it limits the meaning 
of they ; the dependent clause is connected by its subject that to they. 

To the Teacher.— Illustrate the connecting force of who, ivhich, and that by 
substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of 
connection. 

2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press* 

3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for 
his habits. 

Explanation. — The adjective clause does not always modify the 
subject. 

4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity 
to look like genius. 

5. In 1685 Louis XIV. signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict 
of Nantes. 

6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures 
which Samuel Adams framed. 

Explanation. — The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not 
always a subject. 

7. The guilt of the slave-trade,* which sprang out of the traffic with 
Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 

J found , place 8 ' J foUnd the P laCe to which ? 0U 

1 Vg \ referred. 

9. The spirit in which we act is the 
you , referred X . 

t ^ \ highest matter. 

V t . A 10. It was the same book that I re- 

\ which \ 

ferred to. 

* See Lesson 61, foot-note. 



104 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Explanation. — The phrase to that modifies referred. That con- 
nects the adjective clause. When the pronoun that connects an 
adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is 
similar to that of (8). 

11. She that I spoke to was blind. 

12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed 
him. 

Explanation. — A preposition is wanting. That = in which. (Can 
you find a word that would here sound better than that ?) 

13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 

14. It is to you that I speak. 

Explanation. — Here the preposition, which usually would stand 
last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independ- 
ent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its usual place — It 
is you that I speak to. That I speak to modifies the subject. 

15. It was from me that he received the information. 

(Me must be changed to I when from is restored to its usual 

position.) 

mvuntains 16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base 

\ , . . is in the bed of the ocean. 
\ oase i is 



\~.>s£ Explanation. — The connecting pronoun is here 

a possessive modifier of base. 
17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers 
interesting. 

LESSON 60. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES-CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 
1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in 
the time you take to breathe. 



Adjective Clauses— Continued. 105 



Explanation. — The connecting pronoun that* is omitted. 

2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he 
works on. 

3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 

4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 

Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted ante- 
cedent of whom. Supply him, 

5. He did what was right. 

— m 1 dld I . * Explanation.— The adjective 

clause modifies the omitted word 
thing, or some word whose meaning is 
what \ . was K right general or indefinite. t 

6. "What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of 
show. 

7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived. 

8. "What men he had were true. 

The relative pronoun what here precedes its noun like an adjective. 
Analyze as if arranged thus : The men what (= that or whom) he had 
were true. 

9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. 

* When whom, which, and that would, if used, be object complements, they are 
often omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits 
them. 

t Many grammarians prefer to treat what was right as a noun clause (see Lesson 71) t 
the object of did. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by whoever, 
whatever, whichever. 

" What was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use 
as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative ; it is con- 
fined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no antecedent 
is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive whose has, however, attained 
the full construction of a relative.' 1 — Prof. F. A. March. 



106 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject 
(man or he) of the independent clause. 

10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 

11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 

12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. 

depot , is v place Explanation. — The line repre- 

\r V \ senting where is made up of two 

s % parts. The upper part represents 

V where as a conjunction connecting 

stores ^\are deposited ^ e a( jj ec tive clause to place, and 
the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying are deposited. As where 
performs these two offices, it may be called a conjunctive adverb. By chang- 
ing where to the equivalent phrase in which, and using a diagram similar to 
(8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen. 

13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. 
(Supply the place before where.) 

14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing 
suit against Antonio. 

16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the opera- 
tions of the universe are conducted. 



LESSON 61. 

COMPOSITION-ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

COMMA— RULE.— The Adjective Clause, when not re- 
strictive, is set off by the comma. 

Explanation. — I picked the apple that was ripe. I picked the 
apple, which was ripe. In the first sentence the adjective clause 
restricts or limits apple, telling which one was picked ; in the second 
the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, 



Composition— Adjective Clause. 107 



the sentence being nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, and it was 
ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.* 

Caution. — The adjective clause should be placed as 
near as possible to the word it modifies. 

Direction. — Correct the following errors of position, and insert 
the comma when needed : — 

1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of Kin^ 
Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 

2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 

3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with l worm 
which we had for breakfast. 

4. I have no right to decide who am interested. 

Direction. — Construct five complex sentences, each containing an 
adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives : — 
Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. 

* There are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to 
and he or and it ; as, I gave the letter to my friend, who will return n to you. 

Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather 
than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound, making the rela- 
tive clause independent, or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause. 

Such classification will often require very careful discrimination ; as, Yor instance, 
between the preceding sentence and the following : I gave the letter to my friend, who 
can be trusted. 

But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of pnrases and 
clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the following sentences :— 
John, who did not know the law, is innocent. 
John is innocent ; he did not know the law. 
John is innocent because he did not know the law. 

No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses as an 
adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force ? The student should carefully 
note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ. 
(See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.) 



108 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — Change the following simple sentences to complex sen- 
tences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses : — 

1. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 

2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of 
our liberties. 

3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the 
night. 

4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of 
their native land. 

5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphan- 
age, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate 
Chamber. 

Direction. — Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by 
expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses : — 

1. I have many things to tell you. 

2. There were none to deliver. 

3. He had an ax to grind. 

4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 

5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. 

Direction.— Form complex sentences in which these pronouns and 
conjunctive adverbs shall be used to connect adjective clauses : — 
Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever. 
When, where, and why. 

Direction. — Change that which in the following sentences to 
V) hat, and what to that which; whoever to he who, and 
whatever to anything or everything which; where and 
when to at, on, or in which; wherein to in which; 
and whereby to by which : — 

1. That which is seen is temporal. 

2. What God hath joined together let not man put asunder. 



Complex Sentence— Adverb Clause. 109 



3. Whoever lives a pious life blesses his race. 

4. Whatever we do has an influence. 

5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands 
on the very spot where brave men died. 

6. The year when Chaucer was born is uncertain. 

7. The play's the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the 
king. 

8. You take my life in taking the means whereby I live. 

Direction. — Expand these possessive and explanatory modifiers 
into adjective clauses: — 

1. A maris heart deviseth his way. 

2. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lie in three words — health, peace, and competence. 



LESSON 62. 

Direction. — Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Les- 
son, and write illustrative sentences as here directed: — 

Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject ; one 
modifying a complement ; one modifying the principal word of a 
phrase ; one modifying some word omitted ; one whose connective 
is a subject ; one whose connective is a complement ; one whose con- 
nective is the principal word of a phrase ; one whose connective is 
a possessive modifier ; one whose connective is omitted ; one whose 
connective is an adverb. 



LESSON 63. 

COMPLEX SENTENCE-ADVERB CLAUSE. 

Introductory Hints. — He arrived late. You have learned that 
you can expand the adverb late into a phrase, and say, He arrived at 



110 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



midnight. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause 
of Time, and say, He arrived when the clock struck twelve. 

He stood where I am. The clause introduced by where expresses 
Place, and is equivalent to the adverb here or to the phrase in this 
place. 

This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant. The clause intro- 
duced by as . . . as modifies profitable, telling the Degree of the 
quality expressed by it. 

A clause that does the work of an adverb is an Adverb Clause. 



Analysis. 
The adverb clause may express time. 

1. When pleasure calls, we listen. 

listen Explanation. — When modifies both listen and 



+ 



calls, denoting that the two acts take place at the 

^ same time. It also connects pleasure calls, as an ad- 

N? verb modifier, to listen. The offices of the conjunc- 

m P leasure |\ calls tive adverb when may be better understood by 

expanding it into two phrases thus : We listen at the time at which pleasure 

calls. At the time modifies listen, at which modifies calls, and which connects. 

The line representing when is made up of three parts to picture these 

three offices. The part representing when as a modifier of calls is, for 

convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. 

2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 

3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will 
take me up. 

Lord i will take i me 



W ' V V ' Explanation. — By changing then 

v v V""">fe into at the time, and when into at which, 

V A the offices of these two words will be 

■^-ri — 1\ V clearly seen. For explanation of the 

Y j|\ , \\forsake j me t line represeil ti n g w Uen, see Lesson 14 



mother 



\ 



and (1) above. 



Complex Sentence— Adverb Clause. HI 



4. Cato, before * he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the 
night in reading Plato's " Immortality." 

5. Many f a year is in its grave since I crossed this restless wave. 

Explanation. — Many here modifies year, or, rather, year as modi- 
fied by a. 

6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was 
meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. 

Blucher . arrived Explanation.— Just may 

' ^-A be treated as a modifier of 

\g\^ the dependent clause. A 

\ closer analysis, however, 

Wellington ^ was meeting , ondaugM WQuld make it a modifier of 

as. Just as = just at the time 
at which. Just here modifies at the time. At the time is represented in the 
diagram by the first element of the as line. 

The adverb clause may express place. 

7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 

8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense and expression wherever 
he could find it. 

9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 

The adverb clause may express degree or result. 

10. Washington was as good as he was great. 

Explanation. — The adverb clause as he was great modifies the first 
as, which is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the 
adverb clause, answers the question. Good to what extent or degree ? 
The second as modifies great and performs the office of a conjunction, 
and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding 

* Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat before, ere, after, till, until, and 
since as prepositions followed by noun clauses. 
t See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note. 



112 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



as . . o as into two phrases, we have, Washington was good in the 
degree in which he was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20). 

11. The* wiser he grew, the* humbler he became. 

Explanation. — The words the . . . the are similar in office to 
as . . . as — He became humbler in that degree in which he became 
wiser. 

12. Gold is heavier than iron. 

Gold | is \ heavier Explanation. — Heavier = heavy beyond 

the degree, and than = in which. The sentence 
,% & = Gold is heavy beyond the degree in which iron 

V x , is heavy. Is and heavy are omitted. Fre- 
' quently words are omitted after than and as. 

Than modifies heavy (understood) and connects the clause expressing de- 
gree to heavier, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 

13. To be right is better than to be president. 

Explanation. — To be right is better (good in a greater degree) 
than to be president (would be good). 

14. It was so cold that the mercury froze, f 

Explanation. — The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it 
produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mer- 
cury froze, answers the question, Cold to what degree ? The sentence 
= It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze. That, as 
you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses ; it is therefore a 
conjunctive adverb. 

15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. 

* The, here, is not the ordinary adjective the. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative 
pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first the = by how 
much, and modifies wiser ; the second the = by so much, and modifies humbler. 

t In this sentence, also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed 
a clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical rela- 
tions, and cannot always be classed under Degree. 



Adverb Clause— Continued. 113 



Explanation. — It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would 
indicate or require). 

16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding 

for it. 

17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep 
I ( like, it of heU resounded 

\~^T NJk 18. To preach is easier than to practice. 

I A see i it 19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more 

^_\^ than in his* religion. 

20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it. 



LESSON 64. 

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

Introductory Hints. — He lived as the fool lives. The adverb 
clause, introduced by as, is a clause of Manner, and is equivalent to 
the adverb foolishly or to the phrase in a foolish manner. 

The ground is wet because it has rained. The adverb clause, intro- 
duced by because, assigns the Real Cause of the ground's being wet. 

It has rained, for the ground is wet. The adverb clause, introduced 
by for, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our 
believing that it has rained ; it gives the Evidence of what is 
asserted. \ 

Analysis. 
The adverb clause may express manner. 
1. He died as he lived. 

* For the use of he instead of the indefinite pronoun one repeated, see Lesson 124. 
t Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause produces an effect; 
Evidence produces knowledge of an effect. 
Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated as independent. 



114 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Explanation. — He died in the manner in which he lived. For 
diagram, see (1), Lesson 63. 

2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 

3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. 

(For diagram of as . . . so, see when . . . then (3), Lesson 63.) 

4. As is the boy so will be the man. 

5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the 
surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore. 

The adverb clause may express real cause. 

6. The ground is wet because it has rained. 
around . is \ wet 



T 



\$> Explanation. — Because, being a mere con- 

\^ junction, stands on a line wholly dotted. 

it \\has rained 



7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 

8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood 
throws off its impurities. 

9. Since the breath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people 
ventilate their sleeping rooms. 

10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it com- 
bines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits. 

11. Wheat is the most valuable of grains because bread is made 
from its flour. 

The adverb clause may express evidence. 

12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew 
them in the wilderness. 

13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleign 
found them here. 

14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. 



Adverb Clause— Continued. 115 



15. We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes in 
the nests of other birds. 



LESSON 65. 

ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED, 

Introductory Hints. — If it rains, the ground will he wet. The 
adverb clause, introduced by if, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the 
cause of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a 
Condition ready to become a cause. 

He takes exercise that he may get well. The adverb clause, intro- 
duced by that, assigns the cause or the motive or the Purpose of his 
exercising. 

The ground is dry, although it has rained. The adverb clause, 
introduced by although, expresses a Concession. It is conceded 
that a cause for the ground's not being dry exists ; but, in spite of 
this opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry. 

All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, pur- 
pose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of 
Cause, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper. 



Analysis. 
The adverb clause may express condition. 

1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to pro- 
duce combustion. 

2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always 
use prose. 

{Unless = if not.) 

3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an 
image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 

4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors 



ll(j 1 he Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part 
of the year. 

Explanation. — The relative position of the subject and the verb 
renders the if unnecessary. This omission of if is a common idiom. 

5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is 
thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play. 

The adverb clause may express purpose. 

6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to 
each other. 

Explanation. — That, introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere 
conjunction. 

7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many 
directions at one time. 

Explanation. — The phrases in order that, so that = that. 

8. The ship-canal across the Istnmus of Suez was dug so that 
European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope to 
reach the Orient. 

9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains 
them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it 
may drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth. 

The adverb clause may express concession. 

10. Although the brain is only one-fortieth of the body, about one- 
sixth of the blood is sent to it. 

11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen 
pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its 
weight. 

12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his 
foolishness depart from him. 



Composition— Adverb Clauses. H7 



13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom,, 
it arrested its progress for a hundred years. 

Explanation. — If here = even if = though. 

14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not 
sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation. 



LESSON 66. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. 

COMMA— RULE.— An Adverb Clause is set off by the comma 
unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies. 

Explanation. — I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad. I will 
not call him villain, because it would be unparliamentary. Paper was 
invented in China, if the Chinese tell the truth. In these sentences 
the adverb clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are 
added almost as afterthoughts. 

Glass bends easily when it is red-hot. Leaves do not turn red 
because the frost colors them. It will break if you touch it. Here 
the adverb clauses are restrictive ; each is very closely related in 
thought to the independent clause, and may almost be said to be the 
essential part of the sentence. 

When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off. 

Direction. — Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in 
Lessons 63 and 64. 

Direction. — Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses 
of time, place, degree, etc. (for connectives, see Lesson 100), omd 
punctuate according to the Rule : — 

L The leaves of the water-maple turn red — time* 



118 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



2. Our eyes cannot bear the light — time. 

3. Millions of soldiers sleep— place. 

4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands — place. 

5. Every spire of grass was so edged and tipped with dew — degree. 

6. Vesuvius threw its lava so far — degree. 

7. The tree is inclined — manner. 

8. The lion springs upon his prey — manner. 

9. Many persons died in the Black Hole of Calcutta — cause. 

10. Dew does not form in a cloudy night — cause. 

11. That thunderbolt fell a mile away — evidence. 

12. We dream in our sleep — evidence. 

13. Peter the Great worked in Holland in disguise— purpose. 

14. We put salt into butter and upon meat— -purpose. 

15. Iron bends and molds easily — condition. 

16. Apples would not fall to the ground — condition. 

17. Europe conquered Napoleon at last — concession. 

18. Punishment follows every violation of nature's laws — concession. 



LESSON 67. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

The adverb clause may stand before the independent 
clause, between the parts of it, or after it. 

Direction. — Think, if you can, of another adverb clause to follow 
each independent clause in the preceding Lesson, and by means of a 
caret (A) indicate where this adverb clause may properly stand in the 
sentence. Note its force in its several positions, and attend to the 
punctuation. Some of these adverb clauses can stand only at the end. 



Composition— Adverb Clauses. 119 



LESSON 68. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. 

An adverb clause may be contracted into a participle 
or a participle phrase. 

Example. — When he saw me, he stopped — Seeing me, he stopped. 
Direction. — Contract these complex sentences to simple ones : — 

1. Coral animals, when they die, form vast islands with their 
bodies. 

2. The water will freeze, for it has cooled to 32°. 

3. Truth, though she may be crushed to earth, will rise again. 

4. Error, if he is wounded, writhes with pain, and dies among his 
worshipers. 

5. Black clothes are too warm in summer, because they absorb 
heat. 

An adverb clause may be contracted to an absolute 
phrase. 

Example. — When night came on, we gave up the chase = Night 
coming on, we gave up the chase. 

Direction. — Contract these complex sentences to simple ones: — 

1. When oxygen and carbon unite in the minute blood-vessels, heat 
is produced. 

2. It will rain to-morrow, for ' ' Probabilities " predicts it. 

3. Washington retreated from Long Island because his army was 
outnumbered. 

4. If Chaucer is called the father of our later English poetry,. 
Wycliffe should be called the father of our later English prose. 

An adverb clause may be contracted to a prepositional 



120 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



phrase having for its principal word (1) a participle, (2) an 
infinitive, or (3) a noun. 

Direction. — Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional 
phrase having a participle for its principal word : — 

Model. — They will call before they leave the city = They will call 
before leaving the city. 

1. The Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosses the 
Atlantic. 

2. If we use household words, we shall be better understood. 

3. He grew rich because he attended to his business. 

4. Though they persecuted the Christians, they did not exterminate 
them. 

Direction. — Contract each of these adverb clauses to an infinitive 
phrase : — 

Model. — She stoops that she may conquer = She stoops to conquer. 

1. The pine tree is so tall that it overlooks all its neighbors. 

2. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. 

3. He is foolish, because he leaves school so early in life. 

4. What would I not give if I could see you happy ! 

5. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. 

Direction. — Contract each of these adverb clauses to a prepositional 
phrase having a noun for its principal word: — 

Model. — He fought that he might obtain glory = He fought for 
glory. 

1. Luther died where he was born. 

2. A fish breathes, though it has no lungs. 

3. The general marched as he was ordered. 

4. Criminals are punished that society may be safe. 

5. If you are free from vices, you may expect a happy old age. 



Composition— Adverb Clauses. 121 



An adverb clause may be contracted by simply omitting 
such words as may easily be supplied. 

Example. — When you are right, go ahead = When right, go 
ahead. 

Direction. — Contract these adverb clauses: — 

1. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis I. 

2. Error must yield, however strongly it may be defended. 
Explanation. — However modifies strongly, and connects a con- 
cessive clause. 

3. Much wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease. 

4. No other English author has uttered so many pithy sayings as 
Shakespeare has uttered. 

(Frequently, clauses introduced by as and than are contracted.) 

5. The sun is many times larger than the earth is large. 
(Sentences like this never appear in the full form.) 

6. This is a prose era rather than it is a poetic era. 

An adverb clause may sometimes be changed to an 
adjective clause or phrase. 

Example. — This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends — 
This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied = This man, having no 
friends, is to be pitied = This man, ivithout friends, is to be pitied. 

Direction. — Change each of the following adverb clauses first to an 
adjective clause and then to an adjective phrase : — 

1. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 

2. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three 
good things. 



122 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 69. 

ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Tell the hind of adverb clause in each of the sentences 
in Lesson 68, and note the different positions in which these clauses 
stand. 

Select two sentences containing time clauses ; one, a 'place clause ; 
two, degree; one, manner ; two, real cause; two, evidence; 
two, purpose ; two, condition; and two, concession, and 
analyze them. 

LESSON 70. 

REVIEW. 

Direction. — Compose sentences illustrating the different kinds of 
adverb clauses named in Lessons 63, 64, 65, and explain fully the office 
of each. For connectives, see Lesso7i 100. Tell why the adverb clauses 
in Lesson 68 are or are not set off by the comma. Compose sentences 
illustrating the different ways of contracting adverb clauses. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

(See pages 165-168.) 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 



LESSON 71. 

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE-NOUN CLAUSE. 

Introductory Hints. — In Lessons 40 and 41 you learned that an 
infinitive phrase may perform many of the offices of a noun. You are 
now to learn that a clause may do the same. 



The Complex Sentence— Noun Clause. 123? 



Obedience is better than sacrifice — To obey is better thin sacrifice = 
That men should obey is better than sacrifice. The dependent clause 
that men should obey is equivalent to a noun, and is the Subject of is. 

Many people believe that the beech tree is never struck by lightning. 
The dependent clause, introduced by that, is equivalent to a noun, 
and is the Object Complement of believe. 

The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 
The clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is Explan- 
atory of fact. 

A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 
The clause introduced by that is equivalent to a noun, and is an 
Attribute Complement relating to peculiarity. 

Your future depends very much on who your companions are. The 
clause who your companions are is equivalent to a noun, and is the. 
Principal Term of a Phrase introduced by the preposition on. 

A clause that does the work of a noun is a Noun Clause* 



Analysis. 

The noun clause may be used as subject. 

1. That the earth is round has been proved. 

'*y " " Explanation.— The clause that the earth 

earth , is \ ground & round is used like a noun as the subject 

^ f of has been proved. The conjunction that * 

1 , _ , introduces the noun clause. 
' ^ I " This is a peculiar kind of complex sen- 

tence. Strictly speaking, there is here no principal clause, for the whole 
sentence cannot be called a clause, i.e., a part of a sentence. We may say 
that it is a complex sentence in which the whole sentence takes the place 
of a principal clause. 

* " That was originally the neuter demonstrative pronoun, used to point to the fact 
stated in an independent sentence : as, It was good ; he saw that. By an inversion 
of the order this became, He saw that (namely) it was good, and so passed into the 
form He saw that it was good, where that has been transferred to the accessory clause, 
and has become a mere sign of grammatical subordination." — C. P. Mason. 



124 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



2. That the same word is used for the soul of man and for a glass 
of gin is singular. 

3. " What have I done ? " is asked by the knave and the thief. 

4. Who was the discoverer of America is not yet tally determined 
by historians. 

Explanation. — The subject clause is here an indirect question. 
See Lesson 74. 

5. When letters were first used is not certainly known. 

6. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" smote the ears of the guilty 
Cain. 

7. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem 
.never solved by some. 

"Explanation. — When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is an 
indirect question. When to quit business = When they are to quit 
business, or When they ought to quit business. Such constructions 
may be expanded into clauses, or they may be treated as phrases 
equivalent to clauses. 

The noun clause may be used as object complement. 

8. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 

. (hat 

earth i moves Explanation. — Here the clause intro- 
\g£ ' | ~~~ duced by that is used like a noun as the 



Galileo , taught , 



object complement of taught. 



9. The Esquimau feels intuitively that bear's grease and blubber 
are the dishes for his table. 

10. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are. 

11. It will ask of you, " What can you do ?" 

12. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I have !" 

13. He does not know which to choose. 
(See explanation of (7), above.) 



Noun Clause— Continued. 125 



14. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. 

15. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has any control 
over the current of thought in our dreams. 



LESSON 72. 

NOUN CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The noun clause may be used as attribute comple- 
ment. 

1. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 

2. Tweed's defiant question was, " What are you going to do about 
it?" 

3. The question ever asked and never answered is, "Where and 
how am I to exist in the Hereafter ? " 

4. Hamlet's exclamation was, "What a piece of work is man ! " 

5. The myth concerning Achilles is, that he was invulnerable in 
every part except the heel. 

The noun clause may be used as explanatory modi- 
fier. 

6. It has been proved that the earth is round. 



that 



earth . is '-ground Explanation. — The grammatical sub- 



^££ ject it has no meaning till explained by the 

1. / l \ . noun clause. 

It (y\ ) , has I 



7. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the supply 
of blood to the brain. 

8. The fact that mold, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful. 

9. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might 
save a tree mentioned by Caesar. 



126 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Explanation. — Unless in order that is taken as a conjunction con- 
necting an adverb clause of purpose (see (7), Lesson 65), the clause 
introduced by that is a noun clause explanatory of order,* 

10. Shakespeare's metaphor, " Night's candles are burnt out," is 
one of the finest in literature. 

11. The advice that St. Ambrose gave St. Augustine in regard to 
conformity to local custom was in substance this : " When in Rome, 
do as the Romans do." 

12. This we know, that our future depends on our present. 

The noun clause may be used as principal term of a 
prepositional phrase. 

13. Have birds any sense of why they sing ? 

birds i Have , sense 

* ^J ^" Explanation. — Why they sing 

is an indirect question, here used 
— ^ I j^^f - as the principal term of a prepo- 
sitional phrase. 

14. There has been some dispute about who wrote ' ' Shakespeare's 
Plays." 

15. We are not certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole. 

Explanation. — By supposing of to stand before that, the noun 
clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase 
modifying the adjective certain. By supplying of the fact, the noun 
clause will become explanatory. 

16. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and 
triumph. 

17. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength a*nd valor 
of his slain enemy pass into himself. 

* A similar explanation may be made of on condition that, in cast that, introducing 
adverb clauses expressing condition. 




Composition— Noun Clause. 127 



LESSON 73. 

COMPOSITION-NOUN CLAUSE. 

COMMA—RULE.— The Noun Clause used as attribute com- 
plement is generally set off by the comma. 

Remarks. — Present usage seems to favor the omission of the 
comma with the clause used as subject or as object complement, 
except where the comma would contribute to clearness. 

The punctuation of the explanatory clause is like that of other 
explanatory modifiers. See Lesson 34. But the real subject made 
explanatory of it is seldom set off. See next Lesson for the punc- 
tuation of noun clauses that are questions or quotations. 

Direction. — Give the reasons for the use or the omission of the 
comma with the noun clauses in the preceding Lesson, 

By using it as a substitute for the subject clause, this 
clause may be placed last. 

Example. — That the story of William Tell is a myth is now be- 
lieved = It is now believed that the story of William Tell is a myth. 

Direction. — By the aid of the expletive i t, transpose five subject 
clauses in Lesson 71. 

Often the clause used as object complement may be 
placed first. 

Direction. — Transpose such of the clauses used as object comple- 
ments, in the preceding Lessons, as admit transposition. Punctuate 
them if they need punctuation. 

The noun clause may be made prominent by separating 
it and inserting the independent clause between its parts. 



128 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Example. — The story of William Tell, it is now believed, is a mytx 
(Notice that the principal clause, used parenthetically, is set off by 

the comma.) 

Direction. — Write the following sentences, using the independent 

clauses parenthetically : — 

1. We believe that the first printing-press in America was set up 
in Mexico in 1536. 

2. I am aware that refinement of mind and clearness of thinking 
usually result from grammatical studies. 

3. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as 
cheerily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace. 

Direction. — Vary the following sentence so as to illustrate five 
different kinds of noun clauses : — ■ 

Model. — 1. That stars are suns is the belief of astronomers. 

2. Astronomers believe that stars are suns. 

3. The belief of astronomers is, that stars are suns. 

4. The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers. 

5. Astronomers ,are confident that stars are suns. 

1. Our conclusion is, that different forms of government suit differ- 
ent stages of civilization. 

The noun clause may be contracted by changing the 
predicate to a participle, and the subject to a possessive. 

Example. — That he was brave cannot be doubted = His being 
brave cannot be doubted. 

Direction. — Make the following complex sentences simple by chang- 
ing the noun clauses to phrases : — 

1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly is a curious fact. 

2. Everybody admits that Cromwell was a great leader. 

3. A man's chief objection to a woman is, that she has no respect 
for the newspaper. 



Composition— Noun Clause. 129 



4. The thought that we are spinning around the sun at the rate of 
twenty miles a second makes us dizzy. 

5. She was aware that I appreciated her situation. 

The noun clause may be contracted by making the pred- 
icate, when changed to an infinitive phrase, the objective 
complement, and the subject the object complement. 

Direction. — Make the following complex sentences simple by chang- 
ing the predicates of the noun clauses to objective complements, and the 
subjects to object complements: — 

Model. — King Ahasuerus commanded that Haman should be 



King Ahasuerus commanded Haman to be hanged. 

1. I believe that he is a foreigner. 

2. The Governor ordered that the prisoner should be set free. 

3. Many people believe that Webster was the greatest of American 
statesmen. 

4. How wide do you think that the Atlantic ocean is ? 

5. They hold that taxation without representation is unjust. 

Direction. — Expand into complex sentences such of the sentences in 
Lesson 41 as contain an objective complement and an object complement 
that together are equivalent to a clause. 

A noun clause may be contracted to an infinitive phrase. 
Example. — That he should vote is the duty of every American 
citizen = r lo vote is the duty of every American citizen. 

Direction. — Contract these noun clauses to infinitive phrases: — 

1. That we guard our liberty with vigilance is a sacred duty. 

2. Every one desires that he may live long and happily. 

3. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded. 

4. Caesar Augustus issued a decree that all the world should be taxed. 



130 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



5. We are all anxious that we may make a good impression. 

6. He does not know whom he should send. 

7. He cannot find out how he is to go there. 



LESSON 74. 

COMPOSITION -NOUN CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

QUOTATION MARKS— RULE.— Quotation marks (" ") in- 
close a copied word or passage. 

Remarks. — Single marks (' ') inclose a quotation within a quo- 
tation. If, within the quotation having single marks, still another 
quotation is made, the double marks are again used ; as, " The incor- 
rectness of the dispatches led Bismarck to declare, * It will soon come 
to be said, " He lies like the telegraph."'" This introduction of a 
third quotation should generally be avoided, especially where the 
three marks come at the end, as above. 

When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each 
part of the quotation is inclosed ; as, "I would rather be right," said 
Clay, "than be president." 

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within 
the quotation marks; as, He asked, "What are you living for?" 
but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed ; as, 
May we not find "sermons in stones" ? So also with the exclamation 
point. 

CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of a direct quo- 
tation making complete sense or of a direct question intro- 
duced into a sentence should begin with a capital letter. 

Remarks. — A direct quotation is one whose exact words, as 
well as thought, are copied ; as, Nathan said to David, " Thou art 
the man." An indirect quotation is one whose thought, but not 



Composition— Noun Clause— Continued. 131 



whose exact words, is copied ; as, Nathan told David that he was the 
man. The reference here of the pronoun he is somewhat ambiguous. 
Guard against this, especially in indirect quotations. 

The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital 
letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks — though these may be 
omitted. The indirect quotation is not generally set off by the com- 
ma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not inclosed 
within quotation marks. 

A direct question introduced into a sentence is one in which the 
exact words and their order in an interrogative sentence (see Lesson 
55) are preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point ; 
as, Cain asked, "Am I my brother's keeper?" An indirect ques- 
tion is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly asked 
•or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation 
point ; as, Cain asked whether he was Ms brother's keeper. 

The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the 
•comma (but no comma is used after the interrogation point), begins 
vrith a capital letter, and is inclosed within quotation marks — though 
these may be omitted. An indirect question is not generally set off 
by a comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is 
not inclosed within quotation marks. 

If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally 
introduced (see Lesson 147), it is preceded by the colon ; as, Nathan's 
words to David were these: " T7wu art the man." He put the 
question thus : " Can you do it ?" 

Direction. — Point out the direct and the indirect quotations and 
questions in the sentences of Lesson 71, tell why they do or do not 
begin with capital letters, and justify the use or the omission of the 
omma, the interrogation point, and the quotation marks. 

Direction. — Rewrite these same sentences, changing the direct quo- 
tations and questions to indirect, and the indirect to direct. 



132 The Sentenee and the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — Write five sentences containing direct quotations, some 
of which shall be formally introduced, and some of which shall be 
questions occurring at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence. 
Change these to the indirect form, and look carefully to the punchi* 
ation and the capitalization. 

Direction. — Write sentences illustrating the last paragraph of the 
Remarks under the Rule for Quotation Marks, 



LESSON 75. 

ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Analyze the sentences given for arrangement and 
contraction in Lesson 73. 



LESSON 76, 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

Introductory Hints. — Cromwell made one revolution, and Monk 
made another. The two clauses are independent of each other. The 
second clause, added by the conjunction and to the first, continues 
the line of thought begun by the first. 

Man has his will, but woman has her way. Here the conjunction 
connects independent clauses whose thoughts stand in contrast with 
each other. 

The Tudors were despotic, or history belies them. The independent 
clauses, connected by or, present thoughts between which you may 
choose, but either, accepted, excludes the other 

The ground is wet, therefore it has rained. Here the inferred fact, 
the raining, really stands to the other fact, the wetness of the ground, 
as cause to effect — the raining made the ground wet. It has rained, 



The Compound Sentence. 133 



hence the ground is wet. Here the inferred fact, the wetness of the 
ground, really stands to the other fact, the raining, as effect to cause 
— the ground is made wet by the raining. But this the real, or logi- 
cal, relation between the facts in either sentence is expressed in a sen- 
tence of the compound form — an and may be placed before therefore 
and hence. Unless the connecting word expresses the dependence of 
one of the clauses, the grammarian regards them both as independent. 

Temperance promotes health, intemperance destroys it. Here the 
independent clauses are joined to each other by their very position in 
the sentence — connected without any conjunction. This kind of con- 
nection is common. 

Sentences made up of independent clauses we call Compound 
Sentences. 



DEFINITION.— A Clause is a part of a sentence containing 
a subject and its predicate. 

DEFINITION.— A Dependent Clause is one used as an 
adjective, an adverb, or a noun. 

DEFINITION.— An Independent Clause is one not depend- 
ent on another clause. 

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO FOKM. 

DEFINITION. — A Simple Sentence is a sentence that con- 
tains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of 
which may be compound. 

DEFINITION.— A Complex Sentence is a sentence com- 
posed of an independent clause and one or more dependent 
clauses. 

DEFINITION.— A Compound Sentence is a sentence com- 
posed of two or more independent clauses. 



134 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Analysis. 
Independent Clauses in the same line of thought, 

1. Light has spread, and bayonets think. 

LujM , has spread Explanation.-The clauses are of equal rank, 

I ; and so the lines on which they stand are shaded 

j alike, and the line connecting them is not slanting. 

As one entire clause is connected with the other, the 

bayonets ^ ■ think connecting line is drawn between the predicates 

merely for convenience. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a compound sentence because it is made 

up of independent clauses. 

2. Hamilton smote the rock of the national resources, and abundant 
streams of revenue gushed forth. 

3. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have 
greatness thrust upon them. 

Independent Clauses expressing thoughts in con- 
trast. 

4. The man dies, but his memory lives. 

5. Put not your trust in money, but put your money in trust. 

6. Ready writing makes not good writing, but good writing brings 
on ready writing. 

Independent Clauses expressing thoughts in alter- 
nation. 

7. Be temperate in youth, >er you will have to be abstinent in old 
age. 

8. Places near the sea are not extremely cold in winter, nor are they 
extremely warm in summer. 

(Here a choice is denied.) 

9. Either Hamlet was mad, or he feig.ned madness admirably. 
(See (16), Lesson 20.) 



Composition— Compound Sentence. 135 



Independent Clauses expressing thoughts one of which 
is an inference from the other. 

10. People in the streets are carrying umbrellas, hence it must be 
raining. 

11. I have seen, therefore I believe. 
1 1 Tiave seen 



J* 



1 Explanation.— In such constructions and may be 

frgaggg supplied, or the adverb may be regarded as the con- 

^ nective. The diagram illustrates therefore as connect- 

<L ive. 



Independent Clauses joined in the sentence without 
& conjunction. 

12. The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand ; the reindeer is the 
camel of the desert of snow. 

13. Of thy unspoken word thou art master ; thy spoken word is 
master of thee. 

14. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 
Explanation. — As it were is an independent clause used paren- 
thetically. As simply introduces it. 

15. Religion — who can doubt it ? — is the noblest of themes for the 
exercise of intellect. 

16. What grave (these are the words of Wellesley, speaking of the 
two Pitts) contains such a father and such a son ! 



LESSON 77. 

COMPOSITION-COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

COMMA and SEMICOLON— RULE— Independent Clauses, 
when short and closely connected, are separated by the 



136 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



comma ; but, when the clauses are slightly connected, or when 
they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the semi- 
colon is used. 

Remark. — A parenthetical clause may be set off by the comma or 
by the dash, or it may be inclosed within marks of parenthesis— the 
marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense. 
See the last three sentences in the preceding Lesson. 

Examples. — 1. We must conquer our passions, or our passions will 
conquer us. 2. The prodigal robs his heirs ; the miser robs himself. 
3. There is a fierce conflict between good and evil ; but good is in the 
ascendant, and must triumph at last. 

(The rule above is another example.) 

Direction. — Punctuate the following sentences, and give your 
reasons : — 

1. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven 
over the green hill flies the inconstant sun. 

2. The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a 
•disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind 
pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emo- 
tions of the heart. 

3. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought. 

4. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 

5. Occidental manhood springs from self-respect Oriental manhood 
finds its greatest satisfaction in self-abasement.* 

6. The more discussion the better if passion and personality be 

* In this sentence we have a figure of speech called Antithesis, in which things 
unlike in some particular are set over against each other. Each part shines with its 
own light and with the light reflected from the other part. Antithesis gives great force 
to the thought expressed by it. Sentences containing it furnish us our best examples 
of Balanced Sentences. You will find other antitheses in this Lesson and in the 
preceding. 



Composition— Compound Sentence. 137 



avoided and discussion even if stormy often winnows truth from 
error. 

Direction. — Assign reasons for the punctuation of the independent 
clauses in the preceding Lesson. 

Direction. — Using the copulative and, the adversative but, and 
the alternative or or nor, form compound sentences out of the follow- 
ing simple sentences, and give the reasons for your choice of con- 
nectives : — 

Read not that you may find material for argument and conver- 
sation. The rain descended. Read that you may weigh and consider 
the thoughts of others. Can the Ethiopian change his skin ? Right- 
eousness exalteth a nation. The floods came. Great was the fall of 
it. Language is not the dress of thought. Can the leopard change 
his spots ? The winds blew and beat upon that house. Sin is a 
reproach to any people. It is not simply its vehicle. It fell. 

Compound sentences may be contracted by using but 
once the parts common to all the clauses, and compounding 
the remaining parts. 

Example. — Time waits for no man, and tide waits for no man — 
Time and tide unit for no man. 

Direction. — Contract these compound sentences, attending carefully 
to the punctuation : — 

1. Lafayette fought for American independence, and Baron Steuben 
fought for American independence. 

2. The sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn open the mind 
to benevolence, and the sweet but fading graces of inspiring autumn 
dispose the mind for contemplation. 

3. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty 
is around us, and the spirit of the Almighty is above us. 



138 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



A compound sentence may be contracted by simply 
omitting from one clause such words as may readily be 
supplied from the other. 

Example. — He is witty, but he is vulgar = He is witty but vulgar. 
Direction. — Contract these sentences : — 

1. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should 
not be the web. 

2. It is called so, but it is improperly called so. 

3. Was Cabot the discoverer of America, or was he not the dis- 
coverer of America ? 

4. William the Silent has been likened to Washington, and he has 
justly been likened to him. s 

5. It was his address that pleased me, and it was not his dress 
that pleased me. 

A compound sentence may sometimes be changed to a 
complex sentence without materially changing the sense. 

Example. — Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take 
care of themselves = If you take care of the minutes, the hours will 
take care of themselves. (Notice that the imperative form adds 
force.) 

Direction. — Change these compound sentences to complex sen- 
tences : — 

1. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you. 

2. Govern your passions, or they will govern you. 

3. I heard that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming. 

4. He converses, and at the same time he plays a difficult piece 
of music. 

5. He was faithful, and he was rewarded. 



Complex and Compound Clauses. 139 



Direction. — Change one of the independent clauses in each of these 
sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the dependent clause 
to a participle phrase : — 

Model. — The house was built upon a rock, and therefore it did not 
fall = 

The house did not fall, because it was built upon a rock — 
The house, being built upon a rock, did not fall. 

1. He found that he could not escape, and so he surrendered. 

2. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us. 

Direction. — Using and, but, and o r as connectives, compose 
three compound sentences, each containing three independent clauses. 



LESSON 78. 

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES. 

Introductory Hints. — Sun and moon and stars obey. Peter the 
Great went to Holland, to England, and to France. I came, I saw, 
I conquered. Here we have co-ordinate words, co-ordinate phrases, 
and co-ordinate clauses, that is, words, phrases, and clauses of equal 
rank, or order. 

Leaves fall so very quietly. They ate of the fruit from the tree in 
the garden. Regulus would have paused if he had been the man 
that he was before captivity had unstrung his sinews. Here just as 
the word modifier quietly is itself modified by very, and very by so ; 
and just as fruit, the principal word in a modifying phrase, is modi- 
fied by another phrase, and the principal word of that by another : 
so man, in the adverb clause which modifies would have paused, is- 
itself modified by the adjective clause that he was, and was by the 
adverb clause before captivity had unstrung his sinews. These three 



140 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



dependent clauses in the complex clause modifier, like the three words 
and the three phrases in the complex word modifier and the com- 
plex phrase modifier, are not co-ordinate, or of equal rank. 

Mary married Philip; but Elizabeth would not marry, although 
Parliament frequently urged it, and the peace of England demanded 
it. This is a compound sentence, composed of the simple clause 
which precedes but and the complex clause which follows it — the 
complex clause being composed of an independent clause and two 
dependent clauses, one co-ordinate with the other, and the two con- 
nected by and. 



Analysis. 

The clauses of complex and compound sentences 
may themselves be complex or compound. 

insects hour , had -passed 

— T^ — \T V5 \ : 

\ \ \ which . are admired . .. \ _ _' 

\ \ - 1 \rr- opportunity \ had \escaped 

\ \ l "-' <\ — 

\ which . are\decorated 



-^-y 



t which . soar \ Tie X < 



that Explanation.— The first diagram illustrates 

earth '\ is K round the analysis of the compound adjective clause 
that i-"- 7 ^-. in (3) below. Each adjective clause is con- 

it ^r evolves', nected to insects by which. And connects the 

He proved /\ co-ordinate clauses. The second diagram 

' shows that the clause while he tarried modifies 

both predicates of the independent clauses. While modifies had passed, had 
-escaped, and tarried, as illustrated by the short lines under the first two 
verbs and the line over tarried. The office of while as connective is shown 
by the dotted lines. The third diagram illustrates the analysis of a com- 
plex sentence containing a compound noun clause. 

1. Sin has a great many tools, but a lie is a handle which fits them 
all. 



Complex and Compound Clauses. 141 



2. Some one has said that the milkman's favorite song should be, 
" Shall we gather at the river ?" 

3. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are deco- 
rated with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most 
ethereal wings, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the 
bowels of the earth. 

4. Still the wonder grew, that one small head could carry all he 
knew. 

5. When a man becomes overheated by working, running, rowing, 
or making furious speeches, the six or seven millions of perspiration 
tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is bathed and cooled. 

6. Milton said that he did not educate his daughters in the lan- 
guages, because one tongue* was enough for a woman. 

7. Glaciers, flowing down mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers ; 
the upper surface flows faster than the lower, and the center faster 
than the adjacent sides. 

8. Not to wear one's best things every day is a maxim of New 
England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the cate- 
chism. 

9. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it eats the 
frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 

10. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that, 
though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of 
combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is de- 
structive to fire. 

11. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by 
disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the 
Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency 

* In tongue, as here used, we have a Pun— a witty expression in which a word 
agreeing in sound with another word, but differing in meaning from it, is used in place 
of that other. 



143 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



hung, like a cloud, over the land, who first relit the fires of national 
glory, and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory ? * 



LESSON 79. 

EXPANSION. 

Participles may be expanded into different kinds of 
elauses. 

Direction. — Expand the participles in these sentences into the 
clauses indicated : — 

1. Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adjective clause.) 

2. Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.) 

3. They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.) 

4. White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, are cool in 
summer. (Cause.) 

5. Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition. (Evidence.) 

6. Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.) 

7. Sitting there, I heard the cry of "Fire !" (Time.) 

8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.) 

9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around. 
(Independent clause.) 

Absolute phrases may be expanded into different kinds 
of clauses. 

Direction. — Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses indi- 
cated : — 

* The when clauses in (11), as the which clauses in (3), are formed on the same plan, 
have their words in the same order. This principle of Parallel Construction, 
requiring like ideas to be expressed alike, holds also in phrases, as in (10) and (14), 
Lesson 28, and in (14) and (15), Lesson 46, and holds supremely with sentences in the 
paragraph, as is explained on page 168. Parallel construction contributes to the 
clearness, and consequently to the force, of expression. 



Expansion. 143 

1. Troy being taken by the Greeks, iEneas came into Italy. (Time.) 

2. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.) 

3. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.) 

4. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. 
(Concession.) 

5. There being no dew this morning, it must have been cloudy or 
windy last night. (Evidence.) 

6. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. 
(Independent clause.) 

Infinitive phrases may be expanded into different kinds 
of clauses. 

Direction. — Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses indi- 
cated : — 

1. They have nothing to wear. (Adjective clause.) 

2. The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.) 

3. Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.) 

4. The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on 
but. (Condition.) 

5. He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.) 

6. I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.) 

7. He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.) 

Direction. — Complete these elliptical expressions : — 
1. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought 
before. 2. Oh, that I might have one more day ! 3. He is braver 
than wise. 4. What if he is poor ? 5. He handles it as if it were 
glass. 6. I regard him more as a historian than as a poet. 7. He is 
not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 8. Much as he loved his 
wealth, he loved his children better. 9. I will go whether you go or 
not. 10. It happens with books as with mere acquaintances. 11. No 
examples, however awful, sink into the heart. 



144 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 80. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

1. Whenever the wandering demon of Drunkenness finds a ship 
adrift, he steps on board, takes the helm, and steers straight for the 
Maelstrom. — Holmes. 

2. The energy which drives our locomotives and forces our steam- 
ships through the waves comes from the sun. — Cooke. 

3. No scene is continually loved but one rich by joyful human 
labor, smooth in field, fair in garden, full in orchard. — Ruskin. 

4. What is bolder than a miller's neck-cloth, which takes a thief 
by the throat every morning ? — German Proverb. 

5. The setting sun stretched his celestial rods of light across the 
level landscape, and smote the rivers and the brooks and the ponds, 
and they became as blood. — Longfellow, 

6. Were the happiness of the next world as closely apprehended as 
the felicities of this, it were a martyrdom to live. — Sir T. Browne. 

7. There is a good deal of oratory in me, but I don't do as well as 
I can, in any one place, out of respect to the memory of Patrick 
Henry. — Nasby. 

8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to have taken toll 
of everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and 
streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenburg apple. — Irving. 

9. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is 
robbing the human race. — Mill. 

10. There is no getting along with Johnson ; if his pistol misses 
fire, he knocks you down with the butt of it. — Goldsmith. 

11. We think in words ; and, when we lack fit words, we lack fit 
thoughts. — White. 



Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. 145 



12. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he has got to the 
bottom of his subject. — WJiately. 

13. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it 
will disgrace every man who is not. — Holland. 

14. The men whom men respect, the women whom women approve, 
are the men and women who bless their species. — Parton. 



LESSON 81. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

1. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his 
dominions another man better qualified for it sins against God and 
against the state. — Koran. 

2. We wondered whether the saltness of the Dead Sea was not Lot's 
wife in solution. — Curtis. 

3. There is a class among us so conservative that they are afraid 
the roof will come down if you sweep oft' the cobwebs. — Phillips. 

4. Kind hearts are more than coronets ; and simple faith, than 
Norman blood. — Tennyson. 

5. All those things for which men plow, build, or sail obey 
virtue. — Sallust. 

6. The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr very pleasantly for 
you ; but it will crack your bones and eat you for all that. — Holmes. 

7. Of all sad words of tongue or pen the saddest are these : "It 
might have been." — Whittier. 

8. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred thousand bayo- 
nets. — Napoleon. 

9. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if 
he is trodden on. — Kant. 

10 



146 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



10. It is better to write one word upon the rock than a thousand 
on the water or the sand. — Gladstone. 

11. A breath of New England's air is better than a sup of Old 
England's ale. — Higginson. 

12. We are as near to heaven by sea as by land. — Sir H. Gilbert. 

13. No language that cannot suck up the feeding juices secreted for 
it in the rich mother-earth of common folk can bring forth a sound 
and lusty book. — Lowell. 

14. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience 
what are human ills and what is human wrong. — Boyd. 

15. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both* great and 
small ; for the dear God, who loveth us, he made and loveth all. — 
Coleridge. 

LESSON 82. 

REVIEW. 

Show that an adjective may be expanded into an equivalent phrase 
or clause. Give examples of adjective clauses connected by who, 
whose, which, what, that, whichever, when, where, why, and show that 
each connective performs also the office of a pronoun or that of an 
adverb. Give and illustrate fully the Rule for punctuating the 
adjective clause, and the Caution regarding the position of the adjec- 
tive clause. Show that an adjective clause may be equivalent to an 
infinitive phrase or a participle phrase. 

Show that an adverb may be expanded into an equivalent phrase 
or clause. Illustrate the different kinds of adverb clauses, and explain 
the office of each and the fitness of the name. Give and explain fully 
the Rule for the punctuation of adverb clauses. Illustrate the differ- 
ent positions of adverb clauses. Illustrate the different ways of con- 
tracting adverb clauses. 

* Sec Lesson 20. 



Review. 147 

LESSON 83. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate five different offices of a noun clause. Explain the two 
different ways of treating clauses introduced by in order that, 
etc. Explain the office of the expletive it. Illustrate the different 
positions of a noun clause used as object complement. Show how 
the noun clause may be made prominent. Illustrate the different 
ways of contracting noun clauses. Give and illustrate fully the Rule 
for quotation marks. Illustrate and explain fully the distinction 
between direct and indirect quotations, and the distinction between 
direct and indirect questions introduced into a sentence. Tell all 
about their capitalization and punctuation. 



LESSON 84. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate and explain the distinction between a dependent and an 
independent clause. Illustrate and explain the different ways in 
which independent clauses connected by and, but, or, and hence are 
related in sense. Show how independent clauses may be joined in 
sense without a connecting word. Define a clause. Define the dif- 
ferent kinds of clauses. Define the different classes of sentences with 
regard to form. Give the Rule for the punctuation of independent 
clauses, and illustrate fully. Illustrate the different ways of con- 
tracting independent clauses. Illustrate and explain the difference 
between compound and complex word modifiers ; between compound 
and complex phrases ; between compound and complex clauses. Give 
participle phrases, absolute phrases, and infinitive phrases, and 
expand them into different kinds of clauses. What three parts of 
speech may connect clauses ? 



148 



The Sentence and the Pans of Speech. 



GENERAL REVIEW. 

To the Teacher. — This scheme will be found very helpful in a general review. 
The pupils should be able to reproduce it except the Lesson numbers. 

Scheme for the Sentence. 

(Hie numbers refer to Lessons.) 

( Noun or Pronoun (8). 
Subject. •< Phrase (38, 40). 
( Clause (71). 






Predicate. Verb (ll). 

Object. 



Complements. 



Attribute. 



Objective. 



Noun or Pronoun (28). 
Phrase (38, 40). 
Clause (71). 

Adjective (29, 30). 

Participle (37). 

Noun or Pronoun (29, 30). 

Phrase (37, 40). 

Clause (72). 

Adjective (31). 
Participle (37). 
Noun (or Pronoun) (31). 
Phrase (37, 41). 



Modifiers. 



Connectives. 



Adjectives (12). 

Adverbs (14). 

Participles (37). 

Nouns and Pronouns (33, 35). 

Phrases (17, 37, 38, 40, 41). 

Clauses (59, 60, 03, 64, 65). 

Coi^'unctions (20, 64, 65, 71, 76). 
Pronouns (59, 60). 
Adverbs (60, 63, 64). 



k Independent Parts (44). 

{Meaning. Declarative. Interrogative, Imperative, Ex- 
clamatory (46 
Form. Simple, Complex, Compound (76). 



Selections. 14£) 



Additional Selections. 



To the Teacher.— We believe that you will find the preceding pages unusually 
full and rich in illustrative selections ; but, should additional work be needed for 
reviews or for maturer classes, the following selections will afford profitable study. 
Let the pupils discuss the thought and the poetic form, as well as the logical con- 
struction of these passages. We do not advise putting them in diagram. 

Speak clearly, if you speak at all ; 

Carve every word before you let it fall. — Holmes. 

The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud, 
Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee ; 

The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud 
Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be ; 

And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd, 
Clamored their piteous prayer incessantly, 

Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said, 

"Give us, Lord, this day, our daily bread !" 

— Longfellow, 

Better to stem with heart and hand J 

The roaring tide of life than lie, 
Unmindful, on its flowery strand, 

Of God's occasions drifting by. 

Better with naked nerve to bear 

The needles of this goading air 
Than, in the lap of sensual ease, forego 
The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know. 

— WJiittier. 

Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her wretched crust, 
Ere her cause bring fame and profit, and 't is prosperous to be just ; 
Then it is the brave man chooses, while the coward stands aside, 
Doubting in his abject spirit, till his Lord is crucified. — Lowell. 



150 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

To the Teacher.— These and similar "Exercises" are entirely outside of the 
regular lessons. They are offered to those teachers who may not, from lack of time 
or of material, find it convenient to prepare extra or miscellaneous work better suited 
to their own needs. 

The questions appended to the following sentences are made easy of answer, but in 
continuing such exercises the teacher will, of course, so frame the questions as more 
and more to throw responsibility on the pupil. 

It will be evident that this work aims not only to enforce instruction given before 
Lesson 17, but, by an easy and familiar examination of words and groups of words, 
to prepare the way for what is afterwards presented more formally and scientifically. 

ADAPTED FROM IRVING's "SKETCH BOOK." 

1. From this piazza the wondering Ichabod entered the hall. 

2. This hall formfeed the center of the mansion and the place of 
usual residence. ft 

3. Here, rows of resplendent pewter, ranged on a long dresser, 
dazzled his eyes. 

4. In one corner stood a huge bag of wool ready to be spun. 

5. In another ^corner stood a quantity of linsey-woolsey just from 
the loom. 

6. Ears of| Indian corn and strings of dried apples and peaches 
hung in gay festoons along the walls. 

7. These were mingled with the gaud of red peppers. 

8. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. 

9. In this parlor claw-footed chairs and dark mahogany tables 
shone like mirrors. 

10. Andirons, with their accompanying shovel and tongs, glistened 
from their covert of asparagus tops.* 

11. Mock-oranges and conch-shells decorated the mantelpiece. 

12. Strings of various-colored birds' eggs were suspended above it. 

13. A corner-cupboard, knowingly left open, displayed immense 
treasures of old silver and well-mended china. 

* Asparagus tops were commonly used to ornament the old-fashioned fireplace 
in summer. 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 151 



The Uses of Words and Groups of Words. — Find the two chief 
words in each of the first three sentences. As a part of the sentence 
what is each of these words called ? To what class of words, or part 
of speech, does each belong ? Notice that in the fourth and the fifth 
sentence the subject is put after the predicate. Change the order of 
words and read these sentences. Read in their regular order the two 
chief words of each. In the sixth sentence what word says, or asserts, 
something about both ears and strings ? In the ninth sentence put 
what before the predicate shone and find two nouns that answer the 
question. In the eleventh sentence what two things does decorated tell 
something about ? In the seventh sentence these stands for what two 
nouns, or names, found in the preceding sentence ? Find the subject 
and the predicate of each sentence from the sixth to the thirteenth in- 
clusive. To what class of words does each of these chief parts belong ? 
Find in these sentences nouns that are not subjects. Find several 
compound nouns the parts of which are joined with the hyphen. 

The and wondering in the first sentence go with what noun ? The 
group of words from this piazza goes with what word ? In the 
second sentence put what before, and then after, formed, and find the 
names that answer these questions. What does of the mansion go 
with ? What does of usual residence describe ? In the third sentence 
what word tells where the dazzling occurred ? Find W group of three 
words telling what the rows were composed of. What -group of words- 
tells the position of the rows ? In the fourth sentence^what group of 
words shows where the bag stood ? Of wool ready to be spun describes 
what ? A and huge are attached to what ? 

To the Teacher. — We have here suggested some of the devices by which pupils 
may be led to see the functions of words and phrases. We recommend that this work 
be varied and continued through the selection above and through others that may 
easily be made. Such exercises, together with the more formal and searching work 
of the regular lessons, will be found of incalculable value to the pupil. They will not 
only afford the best mental discipline but will aid greatly in getting thought and in 
expressing thought. 

The Force and the Beauty of the Description above. — 

Can you find any reason why we are invited to see this picture through 
the eyes of the interested and wondering Ichabod ? Do you think the 
Word wondering well chosen and suggestive ? Look through this pic- 



152 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



ture carefully and tell what there is that indicates thrift, industry, and 
prosperity. Find more common expressions for center of the mansion 
and place of usual residence. Kotice in the third sentence the effect of 
resplendent and dazzled. How is a similar effect produced in the ninth 
and the tenth sentence ? You see that this great artist in words does 
not here need to repeat his language. We can easily imagine that 
he could produce the same effect in a great variety of ways. In the 
fourth sentence does the expression ready to be spun tell what is actu- 
ally seen, or what is only suggested ? What is gained by this expres- 
sion and by just from the loom in the next sentence ? Do you think an 
unskillful artist would have used in gay festoo?is 9 Read the seventh 
and make it more common but less quaint. Do you think the picture 
gains, or loses, by representing the door as "ajar" instead of wide 
open ? Why ? Can you see any similar effect from introducing their 
covert in the tenth sentence ? What does the expression knowingly 
left open suggest to you ? This selection from Irving illustrates the 
Descriptive style of writing. 

Suggestions for Composition Work. 

In the description above we have taken some liberties with the origi- 
nal, for we have broken it up into single sentences. The parts of this 
picture as made by Irving were smoothly and delicately blended to- 
gether. 

You may rewrite this description ; and, where it can be done to ad- 
vantage, you may join the sentences neatly together. Perhaps some 
of these sentences may be changed to become parts of other sentences. 

To the Teacher.— It will be found profitable for pupils to break up for them- 
selves into short sentences model selections from classic English, and, after examining 
the structure and style as suggested above, to note and, so far as possible, explain how 
these were blended together in the original. A written reproduction of the selection 
may then be made from memory. 

This study of the thought, the structure, and the style of the great masters in 
language must lead to a discriminating taste for literature ; and the effect upon the 
pupil's own habits of thought and expression will necessarily be to lift him above the 
insipid, commonplace matter and language that characterize much of the so-called 
*• original " composition work. 

In the study of these selections, especially in the work of copying, the rules for 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 153 



punctuation, and other rules, formally stated further on, may easily be anticipated 
informally. 

Fov composition work more nearly original the class might read together or discuss 
descriptions of home scenes ; then, drawing from imagination or experience, they 
might make descriptions of their own. In these descriptions different persons might 
be introduced, with their attitudes, employments, and acts of hospitality. 

For exercises in narration pupils might write about trips to these homes, telling 
about the preparation, the start, the journey, and the reception. (For studies on 
narrative style, see pages 157-162.) 

To insure thoroughness, all such compositions should be short. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

ADAPTED FROM IRVIXG'S " SKETCH BOOK." 

1. Every window and crevice of the vast barn seemed bursting 
forth with the treasures of the farm. 

2. The flail was busily resounding within from morning till night. 

3. Swallows and martins skimmed twittering about the eaves. 

4. Rows of pigeons were enjoying the sunshine on the roof. 

5. Some sat with one eye turned up as if watching the weather. 

6. Some sat with their heads under their wings or buried in their 
bosoms. 

7. Others were swelling and cooing and bowing about their dames. 

8. Sleek, unwieldy porkers were grunting in the repose and abun- 
dance of their pens. 

9. From these pens sallied forth, now and then, troops of sucking 
pigs, as if to snuff the air. 

10. A stately squadron of snowy geese was riding in an adjoining 
pond, convoying whole fleets of ducks. 

11. Regiments of turkeys were gobbling through the farmyard. 

12. Guinea fowls fretted about, like ill-tempered housewives, with 
their peevish, discontented cry. 

13. Before the barn-door strutted the gallant cock, clapping his 
burnished wings, and crowing in the pride and gladness of his heart — 
sometimes tearing up the earth with his feet, and then generously call- 
ing his ever-hungry family of wives and children to enjoy the rich mor- 
sel which he had discovered. 



154 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



The Uses of Words and Groups of Words. — In the first sen- 
tence seemed asserts something about what two things ? Every goes 
with what word or words ? What word or words does the phrase of the 
vast barn make more definite in meaning ? The two words window 
and crevice are joined together by what word ? The group of words 
bursting forth with the treasures of the farm describes what ? Notice 
that bursting also helps seemed to say something about window and 
crevice. Seemed does not make sense, but seemed bursting does. What 
does forth modify ? What does with the treasures of the farm modify ? 
In the third sentence what two nouns form the subject of shimmed ? 
What connects these two nouns ? In the fourth what word tells what 
the rows were enjoying ? In the fifth turned up as if watching the 
weather describes what ? As if watching the weather goes with what ? 
The expression introduced by as if is a shortened form. Putting in 
some of the words omitted, we have as if they were watching the 
iveather. They were watching the weather, if standing by itself, would 
make a complete sentence. You see that one sentence may be made a 
part of another sentence. What does each of the two phrases under 
their wings and buried in their bosoms describe ? What connects these 
two phrases ? In the seventh sentence ivere is understood before coo- 
ing and before bowing. How many predicate verbs do you find, each 
asserting something about the pigeons represented by others ? Why 
are these verbs not separated by commas ? What two nouns form the 
principal part of the. phrase in the eighth sentence ? What connects 
these two nouns ? Read the ninth sentence and put 'the subject before 
the predicate. You may now explain as if to snuff the air, remem- 
bering that a similar expression in the fifth sentence was explained. 
In the tenth sentence convoying whole fleets of ducks describes what ? 
Does convoyiyig assert anything about the squadron ? Change it into 
a predicate verb. In the twelfth sentence find one word and two 
phrases joined to fretted. Clapping, crowing, tearing, and calling, in 
the thirteenth, all describe what ? Notice that all the other words fol- 
lowing the subject go with these four. Find the three words that 
answer the questions made by putting what after clapping, tearing, 
calling. What phrase tells the cause of crowing ? The phrase to 
enjoy the rich morsel which he had discovered tells the purpose of 
what ? Which he had discovered limits the meaning of what ? The 
pronoun which here stands for morsel. Which he had discovered 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 155 



= He had discovered morsel. Here you will see a sentence has again 
been made a part of another sentence. Notice that without which 
there would be no connection. 

To the Teacher. — It may be well to let the pupils complete the examination of the 
structure of the sentences above and point out nouns, verbs, pronouns, adjectives, and 
adverbs. 

It will be noticed that in the questions above we especially anticipate the regular 
lessons that follow Lesson 27. This we do in all such "Exercises." 

The Beauty and the Force of the Description above. — Why 

may we say that this farmyard scene is surrounded by an atmosphere 
of plenty, happiness, and content ? Which do you prefer, the first 
sentence above, or this substitute for it : "The large barn was entirely 
full of the products of the farm " ? Give every reason that you can 
find for your preference. We often speak of a barn or storehouse as 
"bursting with plenty," or of a table as "groaning with a load of 
good things," when there is really no bursting nor groaning. Such 
expressions are called Figures of Speech. Examine the second sen- 
tence and .compare it with the following : "The men were busy all 
day pounding out the grain with flails." Do the words busily resound- 
ing joined to flail bring into our imagination men, grain, pound- 
ing, sound, and perhaps other things ? A good description mentions 
such things and uses such words as will help us to see in imagina- 
tion many things not mentioned. In the third sentence would you 
prefer shimmed to flew P Why ? Compare the eighth sentence with 
this : ' ' Large fat hogs were grunting in their pens and reposing 
quietly with an abundant supply of food." Sleek, unwieldy porkers 
would be too high-sounding an expression for you to use ordinarily, 
but it is in tone with the rest of the description. In the repose and 
abundance of their pens is much better than the words substituted 
above. It is shorter and stronger. It uses instead of the verb repos- 
ing and the adjective abundant the nouns repose and abundance, and 
makes these the principal words in the phrase. Repose and abun- 
dance are thus made the striking features of the pen. Arrange the 
ninth sentence in as many ways as possible and tell which way you 
prefer. Is a real squadron referred to in the tenth sentence ? and 
were the geese actually convoying fleets ? These are figurative uses 
of words. What can you say of regiments in the eleventh ? In the 



150 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



twelfth Guinea fowls are compared to housewives. Except in this one 
fancied resemblance the two are wholly unlike. Such comparisons fre- 
quently made by as and like are called Similes. If we leave out 
like and say, " Guinea fowls are fretting housewives," we have a figure 
of speech called Metaphor. This figure is used above when flocks 
are called "squadrons" and "fleets." In the thirteenth sentence 
notice how well chosen and forceful are the words strutted, gallant, 
burnished, generously, ever-hungry, rich morsel. See whether you can 
find substitutes for these italicized words. Were the wings actually 
Wrnished ? "What can you say of this use of burnished ? 

Suggestions for Composition Work. 

The sentences in the description above, when read together, have a 
•somewhat broken or jerky effect. You may unite smoothly such as 
should be joined. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh can all be put 
into one. There is danger of making your sentences too long. Young 
writers find it difficult to make very long sentences nerfectly clear in 
meaning. 

To the Teacher.— While the pupils 1 thoughts and style are somewhat toned up 
by the preceding exercises, it may be well to let them write similar descriptions drawn 
from their reading, their observation, or their imagination. 

If the compositions contain more than two or three short paragraphs each, it will 
be almost impossible to secure good work. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

FROM FRANKLIN'S "AUTOBIOGRAPHY." 

1. I was dirty from my journey, my pockets were stuffed out with 
shirts and stockings, and I knew no soul nor where to look for lodging. 
2. I was fatigued with traveling, rowing, and want of rest , I was very 
hungry ; and my whole stock of cash consisted of a Dutch dollar and 
about a shilling in copper. 3. The latter I gave the people of the boat 
for my passage, who at first refused it on account of my rowing ; but I 
insisted on their taking it. 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 157 



1. Then I walked up the street, gazing about, till near the market- 
house I met a boy with bread. 2. 1 had made many a meal on bread, 
and, inquiring where he got it, I went- immediately to the baker's he 
directed me to, in Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such 
as we had in Boston ; but they, it seems, were not made in Philadel- 
phia. 3. Then I asked for a three-penny loaf, and was told they had 
none such. 4. So not considering or knowing the difference of money, 
or the greater cheapness and the names of his bread, I bade him give 
me three-penny worth of any sort. 5. He gave me, accordingly, three 
great puffy rolls. 6. 1 was surprised at the quantity, but took it; and, 
having no room in my pockets, walked off with a roll under each arm, 
and eating the other. 



The Uses of "Words and Groups of "Words. — Break up sentence 
1, paragraph 1, into three distinct sentences, and tell what changes this 
will make in capitals and punctuation. Do the same for 2. Which 
read more closely together, and are more closely connected, the parts 
of 2, or of 1 ? How is this shown to the eye ? Analyze the first two 
sentences you made from 1. Find two object complements of knew, 
one a noun and the other a group of five words. Find in 2 a phrase 
whose principal part is made up of three nouns. What have you 
learned about the commas used with these nouns ? In making sepa- 
rate sentences of 3 what words do you change or drop ? Are these 
the words that bind the parts of 3 together ? What noun is used 
adverbially after gave ? Supply a preposition and then tell what 
phrases modify gave. Find the object complement of gave. What 
modifies refused by telling when ? What, by telling why f 

In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about ? What does 
gazing about modify ? Read the group of words that tells how far or 
how long Franklin walked up the street Notice that this whole group 
is used like an adverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object 
complement. Drop till and see whether the parts of 1 make separate 
sentences. What word, then, binds these two sentences into one ? Read 
2 and make of it three distinct sentences by omitting the first and and 
the word but. The second of these three sentences just made contains 
several sentences which are not so easily separated, as some are used 
like single words to make up the mam, or principal, sentence. In this 
second part of 2 find the leading subject and its two predicates. Find 



158 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



a phrase belonging to J and representing Franklin as doing something. 
Put what after inquiring and find the object complement. What 
phrase belongs to went, telling where ? He directed me to (ivhom) be- 
longs to what ? Who is represented as intending ? Intending such 
as we had in Boston belongs to what ? As we had in Boston goes 
with what ? Notice that it seems is a sentence thrown in loosely be- 
tween the parts of another sentence. Such expressions are said to be 
parenthetical. Notice the punctuation. 

Notice that gazing, inquiring, intending, considering, knowing, and 
having are all modifiers of I found in the different sentences of para- 
graph 2. Put I before any one of these words, and you will see that 
no assertion is made. These words illustrate one form of the verb (the 
participle), and look in 1, paragraph 1, illustrates the other form (the 
infinitive), spoken of in Lesson 11 as not asserting. Change each of 
these participles to a predicate, or asserting form, and then read the 
sentences in which these predicates are found. You will notice that 
giving these words the asserting form makes them more prominent 
and forcible — brings them up to a level with the other predicate 
verbs. Participles are very useful in slurring over the less important 
actions that the more important may have prominence. Show that 
they are so used in Franklin's narrative. 

Examine the phrase with a roll under each arm, and eating the other, 
and see if you do not find an illustration of the fact that even great 
men sometimes make slips. Does other properly mean one of three 
things ? Try to improve this expression. 

The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs. — The sentences 
above, as you see, stand in two groups. Those of each group are more 
closely related to one another than they ar$ "to the sentences of the 
other group. Do you see how ? In studjJKg this short selection you 
may find the general topic, or heading, t(^5d'*s6mething like this : My 
First Experiences in Philadelphia. Now examine the first group of sen- 
tences and see whether its topic might not be put thus : My Condition 
on Reaching Philadelphia. Then examine the sentences of the second 
group and see whether all will not come under this heading : Hoiv 1 
Found Something to Eat. You see that even a short composition like 
this has a general topic with topics under it. As sub means under, 
we will call these under topics sub-topics. There are two groups of 
sentences in this selection because there are two distinct sub-topics 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 159 



developed. The sentences of each group stand together because they 
jointly develop one sub-topic. 

A group of sentences related and held together by a common thought 
we call a Paragraph. How is the paragraph indicated to the eye ? 
What help is it to the reader to have a composition paragraphed ? 
What, to the writer to know that he must write in paragraphs ? 

The Style of the Author. — This selection is mainly Narrative. 
The matter is somewhat tame, and the expression is commonplace. 
The words are ordinary, and they stand in their usual place. Fig- 
ures of speech are not used. Yet the piece has a charm. The 
thoughts are homely ; the expression is in perfect keeping ; the style 
is clear, simple, direct, and natural. The closing sentence is slightly 
humorous. Benjamin Franklin trudging along the street, hugging a 
great roll of bread under each arm, and eating a third roll, must have 
been a laughable sight. 

Have you ever known boys and girls in writing school compositions, 
or reporters in writing for the newspapers, to use large words for small 
ideas, and long, high-sounding phrases and sentences for plain, simple 
thoughts ? Have you ever seen what could be neatly said in three or 
four lines ' * padded out " to fill a page of composition paper or a 
column in a newspaper ? 

When Franklin said, " My pockets were stuffed out with shirts and 
stockings," he said a homely thing in a homely way ; that is, he fitted 
the language to the thought. To fit the expression to the thought on 
every occasion is the perfection of style. If Franklin had been a weak, 
foolish writer, his sentence might have taken this form : — 

''Not having been previously provided with a satchel or other recep- 
tacle for my personal effects, my pockets, which were employed as a 
substitute, were protruding conspicuously with extra underclothing. " 

Compare this sentence with Franklin's and point out the faults you 
see in the substitute. Can you find anything in the meaning of pro- 
vided that makes previously unnecessary ? Do you now understand 
what Lowell meant when, in praise of Dryden, he said, " His phrase 
is always a short cut to his sense " ? 

To the Teacher.— What is here taught of the paragraph and of style will proba- 
bly not be mastered at one reading. It will be found necessary to return to it occasion- 
ally, and to refer pupils to it for aid in their composition work. 



160 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



Suggestions for Composition Work. 

To the Teacher. — We suggest that the pupils reproduce from memory the extract 
above, and that other selections of narrative be found in the Readerafor elsewhere and 
studied as above. 

The pupils may be able to note to what extent the narrative follows the order of 
time and to what extent it is topical. They may also note the amount of description it 
contains. They should, so far as possible, find the topic for each paragraph, thus 
making an outline for a composition to be completed from reproduction. 

It will now require little effort to write simple original narratives of real or imagined 
experiences. 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

from c. d. warner's "my summer in a garden." 

1. In the driest days, my fountain became disabled ; the pipe was 
stopped up. 2. A couple of plumbers, with the implements of their 
craft, came out to view the situation. 3. There was a good deal of dif- 
ference of opinion about where the stoppage was. 4. I found the 
plumbers perfectly willing to sit down and talk about it — talk by the 
hour. 5. Some of their guesses and remarks were exceedingly ingen- 
ious ; and their general observations on other subjects were excellent 
in their way, and could hardly have been better if they had been made 
by the job. 6. The work dragged a little — as it is apt to do by the 
hour. 

1. The plumbers had occasion to make me several visits. 2. Some- 
times they would find, upon arrival, that they had forgotten some in- 
dispensable tool ; and one would go back to the shop, a mile and a half, 
after it ; and his comrade would await his return with the most exem- 
plary patience, and sit down and talk — always by the hour. 3. I do 
not know but it is a habit to have something wanted at the shop. 4. 
They seemed to me very good workmen, and always willing to stop, 
and talk about the job or anything else, when I went near them. 5. 
Nor had they any of that impetuous hurry that is said to be the bane 
of our American civilization. 6. To their credit be it said that I 
never observed anything of it in them. 7. They can afford to wait. 
8. Two of them will sometimes wait nearly half a day, while a com- 
rade goes for a tool. 9. They are patient and philosophical. 10. It 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 161 



is a great pleasure to meet such men, 11. One only wishes there was 
some work he could do for them by the hour. 



The Uses of Words and Groups of Words. — How can you make 
the last part of 1 express more directly the cause of becoming disabled ? 
Would you use a semicolon to separate the sentences thus joined, or 
would you use a comma ? Give a reason for the comma after days. 
Find in 2 an adverb phrase that expresses purpose. Use an equivalent 
adjective in place of a couple of Explain the use of there in 3. What 
adjective may be used in place of good in a good deal f What long 
N complex phrase modifies deal ? Put ivhat after the preposition about 
and find a group of words that takes the place of a noun. Find in this 
group a subject and a predicate. Find in 4 an objective complement. 
Find a compound infinitive phrase and tell what it modifies. Notice 
that the dash helps to show the break made by repeating talk. When 
5 is divided into two sentences, what word is dropped ? This, then, 
must be the word that connected the two sentences. Notice that the 
two main parts of 5 are separated by a semicolon. This enables the 
writer to show that the two main divisions of 5 are more widely sepa- 
rated in meaning than are the parts of the second division where the 
comma is used. Give the three leading predicate verbs in 5 and their 
complements. If they had been made by the job is joined like an 
adverb to what verb? What is the predicate of this modifying group ? 

The infinitive phrase in 1, paragraph 2. modifies what ? Is me, or 
visits, the object complement of make ? Put what after would find in 
2 and get the object complement. Can you make a sentence of this 
group ? What are its principal parts ? Does the writer make an un- 
expected turn after talk ? How is this shown to the eye ? Put what 
after do know in 3 and find the object complement. Can you make a 
sentence of this object complement ? What phrase can you put in 
place of the pronoun it without changing the sense ? By using the 
word it, a better arrangement can be made. What group of words in 
5 is used like an adjective to modify hurry ? Change the pronoun 
that to hurry and make a separate sentence of this group. What 
word, then, must have made an adjective of this sentence and joined it 
to hurry f What is the object complement ol can afford in 7 ? Sup- 
ply a preposition after will wait in 8, and then find two groups of 



162 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



words that tell the time of waiting. Find a subject and a predicate in 
the second group What explains it in 10 ? Find the object comple- 
ment of wishes in 11. What is the subject of was ? The office of 
there ? After work supply the pronoun that and tell the office of the 
group it introduces. What is the object complement of could do 9 
What connects this group to work ? 

The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs. — There are two 
distinct sets of sentences in this selection — distinct because developing 
two distinct sub-topics. Accordingly, there are two paragraphs. Let 
us take for the general topic The Visits of the Plumbers. Let us see 
whether all the sentences of the first paragraph will not come under the 
sub-topic First Visit, and those of the second under the sub-topic Sub- 
sequent Visits. The sentences of each paragraph should be closely 
related to one another and to the sub-topic. They should stand in 
their proper order. Do the paragraphs above stand such tests ? If 
they do, they possess the prime quality of Unity. 

The Author's Style. — This selection we may call Narrative, though 
there are descriptive touches in it. It is a story of what ? Is the story 
clearly told throughout ? If not, where is it obscure ? Is it made 
interesting and entertaining ? Is Mr. Warner here giving us a bit of 
his own experience ? Or do you think he is drawing upon his imagi- 
nation ? Would you call the style plain, or does it abound with meta- 
phors, similes, or other figures of speech ? Are the sentences generally 
long, or generally short ? What are the faults or foibles of these real 
or fancied plumbers ? Does the author speak of them in a genial and 
lenient way ? or is he hostile, and does he hold up their foibles to scorn 
and derision ? Does he make us laugh with, or does he make us laugh 
at, the plumbers ? If the former, the style is humorous ; if the lat- 
ter, the style is satirical or sarcastic. Would you call Mr. Warner's 
quality of style Humor ? or that form of wit known as Satire ? Is 
our author's use of it delicate and refined ? or is it gross and coarse ? 
Does it stop short of making its object grotesque, or not ? Can you 
name any writers whose humor or satire is coarse ? 

Suggestions for Composition Work. 
To the Teacher.— See suggestions, pages 159, 160. 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 163 



Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

FROM BEECHER'S " LECTURES TO YOUNG MEN." 

1. Indolence inclines a man to rely upon others and not upon himself, 
to eat their bread and not his own. 2. His carelessness is somebody's 
loss ; his neglect is somebody's downfall. 3. If he borrows, the article 
remains borrowed ; if he begs and gets, it is as the letting out of 
waters — no one knows where it will stop. 4. He spoils your work, dis- 
appoints your expectations, exhausts your patience, eats up your sub- 
stance, abuses your confidence, and hangs a dead weight upon all your 
plans ; and the very best thing an honest man can do with a lazy man 
is to get rid of him. 

1. Indolence promises without redeeming the pledge ; a mist of 
f orgetf ulness rises up and obscures the memory of vows and oaths. 2. 
The negligence of laziness breeds more falsehoods than the cunning 
of the sharper. 3. As poverty waits upon the steps of indolence, so 
upon such poverty brood equivocations, subterfuges, lying denials. 4. 
Falsehood becomes the instrument of every plan. 5. Negligence of 
truth, next occasional falsehood, then wanton mendacity — these three 
strides traverse the whole road of lies. 

1. Indolence as surely runs to dishonesty as to lying. 2. Indeed, 
they are but different parts of the same road, and not far apart. 3. In 
directing the conduct of the Ephesian converts, Paul says, " Let him 
that stole steal no more ; but rather let him labor, working with his 
hands the thing which is good." 4. The men who were thieves were 
those who had ceased to work. 5. Industry was the road back to hon- 
esty. 6. When stores are broken open, the idle are first suspected. 



The Uses of Words and Groups of Words.— Find in 1 two 
compound infinitive phrases and tell their use. Supply the words 
omitted from the last part of each compound. What shows that the 
parts of 2 are not closely connected ? Would a conjunction bring 
them more closely together ? If a conjunction is used, would you 
change the punctuation ? A sentence that unites with another to 
make one greater sentence we call a clause. Read the first part of 
2 and change somebody's first to a phrase and then to a clause used 
like an adjective. What distinction can you make between the use of 



164 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



the semicolon and the use of the comma in 3 ? The clause if he bor- 
rows is joined like an adverb to what verb ? If he begs and gets f 
What pronoun more indefinite than your might take its place in 4 ? 
What noun ? Explain the use of the semicolon and the comma in 4 r 
Supply that after thing and tell what clause is here used like an adjec- 
tive. Find the office of that by placing it after do. Find -in 4 an 
infinitive phrase used as attribute complement. 

Change the phrase in 1, paragraph 2, to a clause. Find in 2 the 
omitted predicate of the clause introduced by than. Find a compound 
subject in 3. Are negligence, falsehood, and mendacity, in 5, used as 
subjects ? Explain their use and punctuation. (See Remark, Les- 
son 45.) 

In 3, paragraph 3, how are the words borrowed from Paul marked ? 
Change the quotation from Paul so as to give his thought but not his 
exact words. Are the quotation marks now needed ? In 3 and 4 find 
clauses introduced by that, which, and who, and used like adjectives. 

The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs. — You can easily 
learn the sub-topic, or thought, each of these paragraphs develops. 
See whether you can find it in the first sentence of each. Give the 
three sub-topics. Put together the three thoughts established in these 
paragraphs and tell what they prove. What they prove is that, for 
which Mr. Beecher is contending ; it may be written at the head of the 
extract as the general topic. What merits of the paragraph, already 
treated, are admirably illustrated in this extract ? 

The Style of the Author. — This selection is neither descriptive 
nor narrative ; it is Argumentative. Mr. Beecher is trying to estab- 
lish a certain proposition, and in the three paragraphs is giving three 
reasons, or arguments, to prove its truth. But the argument is not 
all thought, is not purely intellectual. It is suffused with feeling, is 
impassioned. Mr. Beecher's heart is in his work. This feeling warms 
and colors his style, and stimulates his fancy. As a consequence, fig- 
ures of speech abound. 

Notice that in 1, paragraph 1, the thought is repeated by means of 
the infinitive phrases. Read the words Indolence inclines a man with 
each of the four infinitive phrases that follow. You will see that the 
thought is repeated. It is first expressed in a general way ; by the aid 
of the second phrase we see the same thought from the negative side ; 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 165 



the third phrase makes the statement more specific ; the fourth puts 
the specific statement negatively. The needless repetition of the same 
thought in different words is one of the worst faults in writing. But 
Mr. Beecher's repetition is not needless. By every repetition here, Mr. 
Beecher makes his thought clearer and stronger. Examine the other 
sentences of this paragraph and see whether they enforce the leading 
thought by illustration, example, or consequence. 

In what sentence is the style made energetic by the aid of short 
predicates ? How does the alternation of short sentences with long 
throughout the extract affect you ? The alternation of plain with fig- 
urative sentences ? Can you show that the author's style has Variety ? 
Pick out the metaphors in 1, 2, 3, and 5, paragraph 2 ; and in 1 and 2, 
paragraph 3. Pick out the comparisons, or similes, in 3, paragraph 1, 
and in 8, paragraph 2. Figures of speech should add clearness and 
force. If you think these do, tell how. Indolence in 1 and 3, para- 
graph 2, and laziness in 2, introduce us to another figure. Something 
belonging to the men, a quality, is made to represent the men them- 
selves. Such a figure is called Metonymy. 

Suggestions for Composition Work. 

To the Teacher. — Exercises in argumentative writing may be continued by mak- 
ing selections from the discussion of easy topics. 

For original work we suggest debates on current topics. Compositions should be 
short. 

Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the 
Paragraph. 

EXTRACT FROM DANIEL WEBSTER. 

1. The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, into an 
unoccupied apartment. 2. With noiseless foot he paces the lonely 
hall, half lighted by the moon ; he winds up the ascent of the stairs 
and reaches the door of the chamber. 3. Of this he moves the lock, by 
soft and continued pressure, till it turns on its hinges without noise ; 
and he enters, and beholds his victim before him. 

1. The face of the innocent sleeper is turned from the murderer, and 
the beams of the moon, resting on the gray locks of his aged temple, 
show him where to strike. 2. The fatal blow is given ! and the victim 
passes, without a struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the 



166 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



repose of death. 3. It is the assassin's purpose to make sure work ; 
and he plies the dagger, though it is obvious that life has been destroyed 
by the blow of the bludgeon. 4. He even raises the aged arm that he 
may not fail in his aim at the heart, and places it again over the 
wounds of the poniard. 5. To finish the picture, he explores the wrist 
for the pulse. 6. He feels for it, and ascertains that it beats no longer. 
7. It is accomplished. 8. The deed is done. 

1. He retreats, retraces his steps to the window, passes out through 
it as he came in, and escapes. 2. He has done the murder. No eye 
has seen him, no ear has heard him. 3. The secret is his own, and it 
is safe. 

1. Ah ! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. 2. Such a secret 
can be safe nowhere. 3. The whole creation of God has neither nook 
nor corner where the guilty can bestow it, and say it is safe. 4. Not 
to speak of that eye which pierces through all disguises and beholds 
everything as in the splendor of noon, such secrets of guilt are never 
safe from detection even by men. 5. True it is, generally speaking, 
that " Murder will out." 6. True it is that Providence hath so 
ordained, and doth so govern things, that those who break the great 
law of heaven by shedding man's blood seldom succeed in avoiding dis- 
covery. 

The Uses of Words and Groups of Words. — Do the phrases in 
1, paragraph 1, stand in their usual order, or are they transposed ? In 
what different places may they stand ? Does either phrase need to be 
transposed for emphasis or for clearness ? Explain the punctuation. 
Begin 2 with the lonely hall, and notice that the sentence is thrown out 
of harmony with the other sentences, and that the assassin is for the 
moment lost sight of. Can you tell why ? Notice that in the latter 
part of 2 the door is mentioned, and that 3 begins with of this, refer- 
ring to the door. Can you find any other arrangement by which 3 will 
follow 2 so naturally ? Can you change 3 so as to make the reference 
of it clearer ? What is the office of the till clause ? Does the clause 
following the semicolon modify anything ? Would you call such a 
clause dependent, or would you call it independent? Explain the 
punctuation of 3. 

Give the effect of changing resting in 1, paragraph 2, to the assertive 
form. Find in 1 a pronoun used adverbially and a phrase used as ob- 



The Sentence and the Paragraph. 167 



ject complement. Expand the phrase into a clause. Give the modi- 
fiers of passes in 2. Read the first part of 3 and put the explanatory- 
phrase in place of it. What is the office of the though clause ? Find 
in this a clause doing the work of a noun and tell its office. In 4 
would his in place of the before aged and before heart be ambiguous ? 
If so, why ? Find in this paragraph an infinitive phrase used inde- 
pendently. Find the object complement of ascertains in 6. Are 7 
and 8 identical in meaning ? 

Give the modifiers of passes in paragraph 3. Explain the as clause. 

What does that in 1, paragraph 4, stand for ? What kind of clause 
is introduced by where in 3 ? By which in 4 ? Expand the as clause 
in 4 and tell its office. Find in 4 and 5 an infinitive phrase and a par- 
ticiple phrase used independently. Tell the office of the that clauses in 
5 and 6, and of the who clause in 6. 

The Grouping of Sentences into Paragraphs. — Look (1) at the 
order of the sentences in each paragraph, and (2) at the order of the 
paragraphs themselves. Neither order could be changed without mak- 
ing the stream of events run up hill, for each order is the order in 
which the events happened. Look (3) at the unity of each paragraph, 
and (4) at the larger unity of the four paragraphs — that of each para- 
graph determined by the relation of each sentence to the sub-topic of 
the paragraph, and that of the four paragraphs determined by their 
relation to the general topic of the extract. We add that the obvious 
reference of the repeated he to the same person, and of that and secret 
in paragraph 4 demonstrates both unities. Look (5), and lastly, at the 
fact that the sub-topic of each paragraph is found in the first line of 
each paragraph. Could Webster have done more to make his thought 
seen and felt ? 

The Style of the Author.— This selection is largely Narrative. 
Its leading facts were doubtless supplied by the testimony given in the 
case ; but much of the matter must have come from the imagination of 
Mr. Webster. Everything is so skillfully and vividly put that the 
story, touched with description, has all the effect of an argument. 
One quality of it is its clearness, its perspicuity. It is noticeable also 
that very little imagery is used, that the language is plain language. 
But it is impossible to read these paragraphs without being most pro- 
foundly impressed with their energy, their force. 



168 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 



The style is forcible because (1) the subject-matter is easily 
grasped ; (2) because simple words are used, words understood 
even by children ; because (3) these words are specific and individ- 
ual, not generic ; because (4) of the grateful variety of sentences ; 
{5) because of the prevalence of short sentences ; because (6) of 
the repetition of the thought in successive sentences ; because (7), 
though the murder took place some time before, Webster speaks as if 
it were now taking place in our very sight. Find proof of what we 
have just said — proof of (2), in paragraphs 1 and 3 ; proof of (3), in 
sentences 3, 4, and 5, paragraph 2 ; proof of (4), throughout ; of (5) 
and (6), in paragraphs 3 and 4 ; and of (7), in the first three para- 
graphs. 

In paragraph 3, a remarkable sameness prevails. The sentences here 
are framed largely on one plan. They are mostly of the same length. 
The order of the words in them is the same ; often the words are tne 
same ; and, even when they are not, those in one clause or sentence 
seem to suggest those in the next. This sameness is not accidental. 
The more real the murderer's fancied security is made in this para- 
graph to appear, the more startling in the next paragraph will be the 
revelation of his mistake. Hence no novelty in the words or in their 
arrangement is allowed to distract our attention from the dominant 
thought. The sentences are made to look and sound alike and to be 
alike that their effect may be cumulative. The principle of Parallel 
Construction, the principle that sentences similar in thought should 
be similar in form, is here allowed free play. 

To the Teacher.— Do not be discouraged should your pupils fail to grasp at first 
all that is here taught. They probably will not fully comprehend it till they nave 
returned to it several times. It will, however, be impossible for them to study it with- 
out profit. The meaning will grow upon them. In studying our questions and sug- 
gestions the pupils should have the " Extract " before them, and should try to verify in 
it all that is taught concerning it. 



PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED. 



LESSON 85. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Introductory Hints. — You have now reached a point where it 
becomes necessary to divide the eight great classes of words into sub- 
classes. 

You have learned that nouns are the names of things ; as, girl, 
Sarah, The name girl is held in common by all girls, and hence does 1 
not distinguish one girl from another. The name Sarah is not thus 
held in common ; it does distinguish one girl from other girls. Any 
name which belongs in common to all things of a class we call a. 
Common Noun ; and any particular name of an individual, distin- 
guishing this individual from others of its class, we call a Proper 
Noun. The " proper, or individual, names" which in Rule 1, Lesson 
8, you were told to begin with capital letters are proper nouns. 

Such a word as wheat, music, or architecture does not distinguish 
one thing from others of its class ; there is but one thing in the class 
denoted by each, each thing forms a class by itself ; and so we call 
these words common nouns. 

In Lesson 8 you learned that pronouns are not names, but words 

used instead of names. Any one speaking of himself may use 7, my, 

etc., instead of his own name ; speaking to one, he may use you, thou, 

your, thy, etc., instead of that person's name ; speaking of one, he 

may use he, she, it, him, her, etc., instead of that one's name. These 

169 



170 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



little words that by their form denote the speaker, the one spoken to, 
or the one spoken of are called Personal Pronouns. 

By adding self to my, thy, your, him, her, and it, and selves to our, 
your, and them, we form what are called Compound Personal 
Pronouns, used either for emphasis or to reflect the action of the 
verb back upon the actor ; as, Xerxes himself was the last to cross 
the Hellespont ; The mind cannot see itself. 

If a noun, or some word or words used like a noun, is to be modi- 
fied by a clause, the clause is introduced by who, which, what, or 
that; as, I know the man that did that. These words, relating to 
words in another clause, and binding the clauses together, are called 
Relative Pronouns. By adding ever and soever to who, which, and 
tvhat, we form what are called the Compound Relative Pronouns 
whoever, whosoever, whichever, whatever, etc., used in a general way, 
and without any word expressed to which they relate. 

If the speaker is ignorant of the name of a person or a thing and 
asks for it, he uses ivho, which, or what ; as, Who did that ? These 
pronouns, used in asking questions, are called Interrogative Pro- 
nouns. 

Instead of naming things a speaker may indicate them by words 
pointing them out as near or remote ; as, Is that a man ? What is 
this f or by words telling something of their number, order, or quan- 
tity ; as, None are perfect ; The latter will do ; Much has been done. 
Such words we call Adjective Pronouns. 



DEFINITIONS. 
A Noun* is the name of any thing". 



* Most common nouns are derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does 
not necessarily denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive 
quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most noticeable feature : 
they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root sku signifies, and sku is the main 



Classes of Nouns and Pronouns. 171 



A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things 
of a class. 
A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual. 

Remark. — It may be well to note two classes of common nouns — 
collective and abstract. A Collective Noun is the name of a num- 
ber of things taken together ; as, army, flock, mob, jury. An Afo* 
stract Noun is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state ; 
as, whiteness, beauty, wisdom, (the) singing, existence, (the) sleep. 

A Pronoun is a word used for a noun.* 

element in the words sky, shower (Saxon scur), and scum that name these objects, and 
in the adjective obscure. 

A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes gradually, by the 
association of this quality with the rest, to denote them all. 

Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as Smith is from the 
man's office of smoothing, or White from his color, the name soon ceases to denote 
quality, and becomes really meaningless. 

* In our definition and general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the 
traditional views of grammarians ; but it may be well for the student to note that pro- 
nouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their primary 
function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns. 

1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold of 
qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that objects sustain to 
each other and denote the objects by these relations. 2, you, and he denote their 
objects by the relations these objects sustain to the act of speaking; /denotes the 
speaker ; you, the one spoken to ; and he or she or it, the one spoken of. This and 
that denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker ; some and 
few and others indicate parts separated from the rest. Gestures could express all that 
many pronouns express. 

2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or even an 
animal or a thing personified, may use /when referring to himself, you when referring 
to the one addressed, and he, she, it, and they when referring to the person or persons, 
the thing or things, spoken of — and all creatures and things, except the speaker and 
the one spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence so 
vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete ignorance of the 



172 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form de- 
notes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

A Relative JPronoun is one that relates to some preceding 
word or words and connects clauses. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question 
is asked. 

An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of 
both an adjective and a noun. 

The simple personal pronouns are : — 
/, thou, you, he, she, and it. 

The compound personal pronouns are : — 
Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself. 

The simple relative pronouns are : — 
Who, which, that, and what.* 

objects they denote. In, Who did it ? Which of them did you see ? the questioner is 
trying to find out the one for whom Who stands, and the person or thing that Which 
denotes. To what does it refer in, It rains ; How is it with you ? 

3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before or coming 
after. To be or not to be— that is the question. It is doubtful whether the North Pole 
will ever be reached. The sails turned, the corn was ground, after which the wind 
ceased. Ought you to go ? I cannot answer that. In the first of these sentences, that 
stands for a phrase ; in the last, for a sentence. It and which in the second and third 
sentences stand for clauses. 

4. WfiicJi, retaining its office as connective, may^as an adjective accompany its 
noun ; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, which forbearance he allowed me. 

* As, in such sentences as this : Give such things as you can spare, may be treated as 
a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a conjunctive 
adverb— Give such things as those are tuhich you can spare. 

But used after a negative is sometimes called a " negative relative " = that not ; as, 
There is not a man here but would die for such a cause. When the sentence is 
expanded, but is found to be a preposition— There is not a man here but (= except) the 
one who would die, etc. 



Ciasses of Nouns and Pronouns. 173 



The compound relative pronouns are : — 
Whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or what- 
soever. 

The interrogative pronouns are : — 
Who, which, and what. 

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are : — 
All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, 

little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, 

that, these, this, those, whole, etc.* 

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a 
pronoun is used is called an Antecedent, 

Direction. — Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these 
sentences : — 

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met 
him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and 
his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To 
lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, 
which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. 

Remark. — When the interrogatives who, which, and what intro- 
duce indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from 

* The adjective pronouns this, that, these, and those are called Demonstrative 
pronouns. -I //, any, both, each, either, many, one, other, etc. are called Indefinite 
pronouns because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. 
Each, either, and neither are also called Distributives. < 

But for the fact that such words as brave, good, etc. in the phrases the brave, the 
good, etc. describe — which pronouns never do — we might call them adjective pro- 
nouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be 
supplied. 

Some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns ; as, the grand, the sublime, the 
beautiful 



174 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example — I found who 
called and what he wanted ; I saw what was done. The first sen- 
tence does not mean, I found the person who called and the thing 
that he wanted. " Who called" and "what he wanted" here sug- 
gest questions — questions referred to but not directly asked. I saw 
what was done = I saw the thing that was done. No question is 
suggested. 

It should be remembered that which and what may also be inter- 
rogative adjectives ; as, Which side won ? What news have you ? 

Direction. — Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns : — 
1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole 
my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard 
what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom 
the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and 
who said it ? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She 
saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever 
is done must be done quickly. 



LESSON 86. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS. 

To the Teacher.— In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correc- 
tion, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. 
To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the class, read some of the 
examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons. 

Caution. — Avoid he, it, they, or any other pronoun 
when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. 
Eepeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, 
or recast the sentence. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their 
ambiguity : — 



Construction of Pronouns. 175 



Model. — The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should leave 
him, he would die = The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should 
leave his father, his father would die. Lysias promised bis father 
never to abandon his friends = Lysias gave his father this promise : 
" I will never abandon your (or my) friends." 

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the 
bookseller, he told him it was a dry subject. 2. He said to his friend 
that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought he had better go home. 

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what 
you may suppose were the speaker's words.) 

3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so 
short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by 
a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told 
the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that 
he should pay him for his loss. 

Caution.; — Do not use pronouns needlessly. 
Direction. — Write these sentences, omitting needless pronouns : — 
1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother 
she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it 
mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let 
every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo 
having been lost, he gave himself up to the English. 

Caution. — In addressing a person, do not, in the same 
sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 

1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news ? 2. You cannot always 

have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself 

last, and others will love you. 

Caution. — The pronoun them should not be used for 



276 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



the adjective those, nor the pronoun what for the con- 
junction that* 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 
1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail ? 
3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We 
ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good. 

Caution. — The relative who should always represent 
persons ; which, brute animals and inanimate things ; 
that, persons, animals, and things ; and what, things. 
The antecedent of what should not be expressed. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 

1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which 
I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called 
Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 
6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode 
was named Bucephalus. 

Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in 
these five Cautions. 

* IVhat properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect ques- 
tion, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction that. But may be 
placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause. 

This use of but requires careful discrimination. For example—" I have no fear that 
he will do it " ; "I have no fear but that he will do it." The former indicates certainty 
that he will not do it, and the latter certainty that he will do it. " No one doubts but 
that he will do it " is incorrect, for it contains three negatives— no, doubts, and but. 
Two negatives may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, " No 
one doubts that he will do it," or " No one believes but that he will do it," or " Every 
one believes that he will do it." 

But what, for but that or but, is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause ; 
as, "He is not so bad but what he might be worse." For this office of but or but that 
in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example " of the uses of but. 



Construction of Pronouns— Continued. 177 



LESSON 87. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Several connected relative clauses relating to 
the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun. 
Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors: — 

1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of 
the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. 
He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not 
forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached 
the stand last. 4. The man tjiat fell overboard, and who was drowned 
was the first mate. 

Caution. — When the relative clause is not restrictive,* 
who or ivhich, and not that, is generally used. 

Example. — Water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, 
covers three-fourths of the earth's surface. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 

1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of 
oxygen and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular 
American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a pre- 
cious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is 
of few days and full of trouble. 

Caution. — The relative thatf should be used instead of 

* See Lesson 61. 

t That is almost always restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine who 
and which to unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice. 

The wide use of who and. which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying 
that they occur after this, these, those, and that, and hence are used to avoid disagree- 
12 



178 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



who or which (1) when the antecedent names both persons 
and things; (2) when that would prevent ambiguity; and (3) 
when it would sound better than who or which, e. g., after 
that, same, very, all, the interrogative who, the indefinite 
it, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree. 
Example. — He lived near a pond that was a nuisance. (That 
relates to pond— the pond was a nuisance. Which might have, for its 
antecedent, pond, or the whole clause He lived near a pond ; and so its 
use here would be ambiguous.) 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors: — 
1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief 
material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw 
him did not pity him ? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. 
He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school 
which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was 
not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend. 

Caution. — The relative clause should be placed as near 
as possible to the word which it modifies. 

Direction. — Correct these errors : — 

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 
2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog 
was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was 
picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was can- 
onized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. 
He should not keep a horse that cannot ride. 

able repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing who and 
which in restrictive clauses ; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that who and which 
stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, this, these, those, or that preceding 
them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than that itself does. Especially may this be 
said of which. 



Construction of Pronouns— Continued. 179 



Caution. — When this and that, these and those, the one 
and the other refer to things previously mentioned, this 
and these refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to 
the first mentioned ; the one refers to the first mentioned, 
and the other to the last mentioned. When there is danger 
of obscurity, repeat the nouns. 

Examples. — High and tall are synonyms : this may be used in 
speaking of what grows — a tree ; that, in speaking of what does not 
grow — a mountain. Homer was a genius ; Virgil, an artist : in the 
one we most admire the man ; in the other, the work. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 
1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar ; tact, triumphantly : this is 
complimented by the bench ; that gets the fees. 2. Charles XII. and 
Peter the Great were sovereigns : the one was loved by his people ; 
the other was hated. 3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in 
every community ; these are shunned, while those are sought after. 

Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in 
these five Cautions, 



LESSON 88. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS-CONTINUED. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

Direction. — Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and 
correct the errors : — 

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father 
died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which 
swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 
5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the 



180 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served 
under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit 
down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need 
no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able 
to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do 
you know that gentleman that is speaking ? 13. There is no book 
which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in 
it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, 
that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the 
cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. Reputation and char- 
acter do not mean the same thing : the one denotes what we are ; the 
other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to 
this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What 
pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general 
appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and 
mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's 
father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to 
go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots ? 23. I don't know but 
what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad : the one 
is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked 
difference between shiners and trout ; these have scales, and those 
have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help 
thyself, and Heaven will help you. 



LESSON 89. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES, 

Introductory Hints. — You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the 
sentences Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful, the 
adjectives ripe and unripe limit, or narrow, the application of apples 
by describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You 



Classes of Adjectives. 181 



learned also that the, this, an, no, some, and many limit, or narrow, 
the application of any noun which they modify, as apple or apples, 
by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting 
the quantity of it. 

Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called Descriptive 
Adjectives ; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or 
denoting quantity are called Definitive Adjectives. 

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its applica- 
tion (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing 
named ; as, yellow gold, the good God, the blue sky ; or (2) when they 
are attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb ; 
as, The fields were green ; The ground was dry and hard. 



DEFINITIONS. 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pro- 
noun.* 

A Descriptive Adjective is one that modifies by expressing: 
quality. 

A Definitive Adjective is one that modifies by pointing* 
oat, numbering, or denoting quantity. + 

The definitive adjectives an or a and the are commonly 
called Articles. An or a is called the Indefinite Article \, 
and the is called the Definite Article. 

A noun may take the place of an adjective. 

* Pronouns, like nouns, are often modified by an "appositive" adjective, that is, an 
adjective joined loosely without restricting : thus— Faint and weary, he struggled on, 
or, He, faint and weary, struggled on. Adjectives that complete the predicate belong 
as freely to pronouns as to nouns. 

t The definitive adjectives one, two, three, etc. ; first, second, third, ete. are called 
Numeral adjectives. One, two, three, etc. are called Cardinal numerals ; and 
first, second, third, etc. are called Ordinal numerals. 



182 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



Examples. — London journals, the New York press, silver spoons, 
diamond pin, state papers, gold bracelet. 

Direction. — Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives 
below, and name such as do not limit: — 

Able statesmen, much rain, ten mice, brass kettle, small grains, 
Mansard roof, some feeling, all men, hundredth anniversary, the Pitt 
diamond, the patient Hannibal, little thread, crushing argument, 
moving spectacle, the martyr president, tin pans, few people, less 
trouble, this toy, any book, brave Washington, Washington market, 
three cats, slender cord, that libel, happy children, the broad Atlan- 
tic, The huge clouds were dark and threatening, Eyes are bright, 
What name was given ? Which book is wanted ? 

Direction. — Point out the descriptive and the definitive adjectives 
in Lessons 80 and 81, and tell whether they denote color, motion, 
shape, position, size, moral qualities, or whether they mod- 
ify in some other way. 



LESSON 90. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Caution. — An and a are different forms of one. An is 
used before vowel sounds. For the sake of euphony, an 
drops n and becomes a before consonant sounds.* 

Examples. — An inkstand, a bag, a historian, a humble petition, 
an hour (h is silent), a unit (unit begins with the consonant sound 
of y), such a one (one begins with the consonant sound of w). 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors: — 

* Some writers still use an before words beginning with unaccented h ; as, an 
historian. 



Construction of Adjectives. 183 



A heir, a inheritance, an hook, an ewer, an usurper, a account, an 
uniform, an hundred, a umpire, an hard apple, an hero. 

Caution. — An or a is used to limit a noun to one thing 
of a class — to any one. The is used to distinguish (1) one 
thing or several things from others, and (2) one class of 
things from other classes. 

Explanation. — We can say a horse, meaning any one horse ; but 
we cannot say, A gold is heavy, This is a poor kind of a gas, William 
Pitt received the title of an earl, because gold, gas, and earl are here 
meant to denote each the whole of a class, and a limits its noun to one 
thing of a class. 

The horse or the horses must be turned into the lot. Here the before 
horse distinguishes a certain animal, and the before horses distin- 
guishes certain animals, from others of the same class ; and the 
before lot distinguishes the field from the yard or the stable — things 
in other classes. The horse is a noble animal. Here the distinguishes 
this class of animals from other classes. But we cannot say, The man 
(meaning the race) is mortal, The anger is a short madness, The truth 
is eternal, The poetry and the painting are fine arts, because man, 
anger, truth, poetry, and painting are used in their widest sense, and 
name things that are sufficiently distinguished without the. 

Direction. — Study the Caution as explained, and correct these 
errors : — 

1. This is another kind of a sentence. 2. Churchill received the 
title of a duke. 3. A hill is from the same root as column. 4. Dog is 
a quadruped. 5. I expected some such an offer. 6. The woman is 
the equal of man. 7. The sculpture is a fine art. 8. Unicorn is kind 
of a rhinoceros. 9. Oak is harder than the maple. 

Caution. — Use an, a, or the before each of two or more 



184 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify differ- 
ent nouns, expressed or understood ; but, when they mod- 
ify the same noun, the article should not be repeated. 

Explanation. — A cotton and a silk umbrella means two umbrellas 
—one cotton and the other silk ; the word umbrella is understood after 
cotton. A cotton and silk umbrella means one umbrella partly cotton 
and partly silk ; cotton and silk modify the same noun — umbrella. 
The wise and the good means two classes ; the wise and good means 
one class. 

JDirection. — Study the Caution as explained, &nd correct these 
errors : — 

1. The Northern and Southern Hemisphere. 2. The Northern and 
the Southern Hemispheres. 3. The right and left hand. 4. A Pull- 
man and Wagner sleeping-coach. 5. The fourth and the fifth verses. 
6. The fourth and fifth verse. 7. A Webster's and Worcester's 
dictionary. 

Caution. — Use an, a, or the before each of two or more 
connected nouns denoting things that are to be distin- 
guished from each other or emphasized. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 
1. There is a difference between the sin and sinner. 2. We criti- 
cise not the dress but address of the speaker. 3. A noun and pronoun 
are alike in office. 4. Distinguish carefully between an adjective and 
adverb. 5. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the cat tribe. 6. 
Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been reached. 7. 
The secretary and treasurer were both absent. {The secretary and 
treasurer was absent — referring to one person — is correct.) 

Caution. — A few and a little mean some as opposed to 
none ; few means not many, and little means not much. 



Construction of Adjectives— Continued. 185 



Examples. — He saved a few things and a little money fiom the 
wreck. Few shall part where many meet. Little was said or done 
about it. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 

1. There are a few pleasant days in March, because it is a stormy 
month. 2. He saved a little from the fire, as it broke out in the 
night. 3. Few men live to be a hundred years old, but not many^ 
4. Little can be done, but not much. 

Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these 
Cautions. 



LESSON 91. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Choose apt adjectives,, but do not use them 
needlessly ; avoid such as repeat the' idea or exaggerate it. 

Remark. — The following adjectives are obviously needless : Good 
virtues, verdant green, painful toothache, umbrageous shade. 

Direction. — Study the Caution carefully, and correct these errors: — 

1. It was splendid fun. 2. It was a tremendous dew. 3. He used 
less words than the other speaker. 4. The lad was neither docile nor 
teachable. 5. The belief in immortality is common and universal. 
6. It was a gorgeous apple. 7. The arm-chair was roomy and capa- 
cious. 8. It was a lovely bun, but I paid a frightful price for it. 

Caution. — So place adjectives that there can be no doubt 
as to what you intend them to modify. If those forming* 
a series are of different rank, place nearest the noun the 
one most closely modifying it. If they are of the sama 



186 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



rank, place them where they will sound best — generally in 
the order of length, the shortest first. 
Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors : — 
1. A new bottle of wine. 2. The house was comfortable and large. 
3. A salt barrel of pork. 4. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 5. A 
fried dish of bacon. 6. We saw in the distance a precipitous, barren, 
towering mountain. 7. Two gray fiery little eyes. 8. A docile and 
mild pupil. 9. A pupil, docile and mild. 

Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in 
these two Cautions. 

Miscellaneous Errors. 

Direction. — Give the Cautions which these expressions violate, and 
correct the errors : — 

1. I can bear the heat of summer, but not cold of winter. 2. The 
North and South Pole. 3. The eldest son of a duke is called a mar- 
guis. 4. He had deceived me, and so I had a little faith in him. 5. 
An old and young man. 6. A prodigious snowball hit my cheek. 7. 
The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 8. The fat, two lazy men. 
9. His penmanship is fearful. 10. A white and red flag were flying. 
11. His unusual, unexpected, and extraordinary success surprised 
him. 12. He wanted a apple, an hard apple. 13. A dried box of 
herrings. 14. He received a honor. 15. Such an use ! 16. The day 
was delightful and warm. 17. Samuel Adams's habits were unosten- 
tatious, frugal, and simple. 18. The victory was complete, though a 
few of the enemy were killed or captured. 19. The truth is mighty 
and will prevail. 20. The scepter, the miter, and coronet seem to me 
poor things for great men to contend for. 21. A few can swim across 
the Straits of Dover, for the width is great and the current strong. 
22. I have a contemptible opinion of you. 23. She has less friends 
than I. 



Classes of Verbs and Adverbs. 187 



LESSON 92. 

CLASSES OF VERBS AND ADVERBS. 

Introductory Hints. — You learned in Lesson 28 that in saying 
Washington captured we do not fully express the act performed. 
Adding Comwallis, we complete the predicate by naming the one that 
receives the act that passes over from the doer. Transitive means 
passing over, and so all verbs that represent an act as passing over 
from a doer to a receiver are called Transitive Verbs. If we say 
Comwallis was captured by Washington, the verb is still transitive ; 
but the object, Comwallis, which names the receiver, is here the sub- 
ject of the sentence, and not, as before, the object complement. You 
see that the object, the word that names the receiver of the act, may 
be the subject, or it may be the object complement. 

All verbs that, like fall in Leaves fall, do not represent the act 
as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere being or state 
of being are called Intransitive Verbs. 

A verb transitive in one sentence ; as, He ivrites good English, may 
be intransitive in another ; as, He writes well — meaning simply He is 
a good writer. A verb is transitive only when an object is expressed 
or obviously understood. 

Washington captured Comwallis. Here captured represents the 
act as having taken place in past time. Tense means time, and hence 
this verb is in the past tense. Comwallis captured, the war speedily 
closed. Here captured is, as you have learned, a participle ; and, 
representing the act as past at the time indicated by closed, it is a 
past participle. Notice that ed is added to capture (final e is always 
dropped when ed is added) to form its past tense and its past parti- 
ciple. All verbs that form the past tense and the past participle by 
adding ed to the present are called Regular Verbs. 

All verbs that do not form the past tense and the past participle by 



188 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



adding ed to the present ; as, fall, fell, fallen ; go, went, gone, are 
called Irregular Verbs. 



Early, hereafter, now, often, soon, presently, etc., used to modify 
any verb — as, will go in, I will go soon — by expressing time, are called 
Adverbs of Time. 

Away, hack, elsewhere, hence, out, within, etc., used to modify any 
verb — as, will go in, I will go away — by expressing direction or place, 
are called Adverbs of Place. 

'Exceedingly, hardly, quite, sufficiently, too, very, etc., used to mod- 
ify a word — as the adjective hot in, The tea is very hot — by expressing 
fjegree^ are called Adverbs of Degree. 

IPlaisdy, so, thus, well, not,* etc., used to modify a word — as, spoke 
in, He spoke plainly — by expressing manner, are called Adverbs of 
Manner. 

* It may "be worth remarking that while there are many negative nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, adjectives, and conjunctions in our language, negation is more frequently ex- 
pressed in English by the adverb than by any other part of speech— than by all other 
parts of speech. A very large per cent of these adverbs modify the verb. That is to 
;say, it is largely through the adverb that what the predicate expresses is declared not 
to be true of the thing named by the subject. It is very suggestive that much of what 
is said consists of denial— is taken up in telling not what is true of things but what is 
not true x>f them. 

** The negative particle in our language is simply the consonant n. In Saxon it 
^existed as a word ne ; but we have lost that word, and it is now a letter only, which 
enters into many words, as into no, not, nought, none, neither, nor, never."— Earle. 

JVo and yes (nay and yea), when used to answer questions, show how the thought 
presented is regarded, and may therefore be classed with adverbs of manner. They 
are sometimes called independent adverbs. They seem to modify words omitted in 
the answer but contained in the question ; as, Did you see him ? No = I did no (not) 
eee him ; Will you go ? Yes. The force of yes may be illustrated by substituting 
certainly— Will you go ? Certainly = Certainly I will go, or I will certainly go. 

As no and yes represent or suggest complete answers, they may be called sentence- 
words. 



Classes of Vet*bs and Adverbs. 189 



Hence, therefore, why, etc., used in making an inference or in ex- 
pressing cause — as, It is dark, hence, or therefore, the sun is down; 
Why is it dark ? — are called Adverbs of Cause. 

Some adverbs fall into more than one class ; as, so and as. 

Some adverbs, as you have learned, connect clauses, and are there- 
fore called Conjunctive Adverbs. 



DEFINITIONS. 
A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being. 

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. 

A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object.* 
An Intransitive Verb is one that does not require an 
object. 

CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. 

A Regular Verb is one that forms its past tense and past 
participle by adding ed to the present. 

An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its past tense 
and past participle by adding ed to the present. 



An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, 
or an 'adrerb.f 

* The object of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the action, 
may be the object complement, or it may be the subject ; as, Brutus stabbed 
Ccesar ; Ccesar was stabbed by Brutus. See page 187. 

t Adverbs have several exceptional uses. They may be used independently ; as, 
Now, there must be an error here. They may modify a phrase or a preposition ; 
as, He came just in time ; It went far beyond the mark. They may modify a clause 
or a sentence ; as, He let go simply because he was exhausted ; Certainly you may go. 

It may also be noted here that adverbs are ilsed interrogatively ; as, How, when, and 
where is this to be done ? and that they may add to the office of the adverb that of 
the conjunction ; as, I go where I am sent. 



190 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs of Time are those that generally answer the ques- 
tion, When ? 

Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the 
question, Where ? 

Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the 
question, To what extent ? 

Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the 
question, In what way ? 

Adverbs of Cause are those that generally answer the 
question, Why 9 

Direction. — Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regu- 
lar and the irregular verbs in Lesson 14, and classify the adverbs. 



LESSON 93. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 

Caution. — Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them 
needlessly or instead of other forms of expression ; avoid 
such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. 

Examples. — I could ill (not illy) afford the time. Do as (not like) 
I do. A diphthong is the union of two vowels (not where or when 
two vowels unite) in the same syllable. This (not this here or this 
'ere) sentence is correct. He wrote that (not how that) he had been 
sick. The belief in immortality is universally held (not universally 
held everywhere). His nose was very (not terribly or frightfully) red. 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these 
errors : — 

1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute 



Construction of Adverbs. 191 



to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peace- 
fully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 
'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact 
words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my 
tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in 
immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to 
hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that 
he would go. 

Caution. — So place adverbs that there can be no doubt 
as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to 
the sound also. They seldom stand between to and the 
infinitive. * 

Examples. — I only rowed across the river = I only (= alone, an 
adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I only rowed etc., but 
did not swim or wade. I rowed only across the river = across, not up 
or down etc. I rowed across the river only = the river only, not the 
bay etc. Merely to see (not to merely see) her was sufficient. Not 
every collegian is a scholar (not Every collegian is not a scholar). 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct 
these errors : — 

1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a 
day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. 

* Id stances of the " cleft, or split, infinitive "— the infinitive separated from its to by 
an intervening adverb— are found in Early English and in English all the way down. 
Pitzedward Hall and others have shown this. 

But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's 
gtanding between to and the infinitive. Few writers ever place an adverb there at 
all ; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that adverb only occasionally. 

Whether the adverb should be placed before the to or after the infinitive is often a 
nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It should never stand, 
however, where it would leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure. 



192 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



.5. He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak. 7. 
All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears mirac- 
ulous. 

Caution. — Unless you wish to affirm,, do not use two 
negative words so that they shall contradict each other.* 

Examples. — No one has (not hasn't) yet reached the North Pole. 
No -zmpleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended 
to affirm). 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct 
these errors : — 

1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 
3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be some- 
thing wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. 
He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. 

Caution. — Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjec- 
tives for adverbs. 

Examples. — The moon looks calm and peaceful (not calmly and 
peacefully, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The 
moon looks down calmly and peacefully on the battlefield (not calm 
and peaceful, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the 
act). I slept soundly (not good or sound). 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct 
these errors : — 

1. It was a softly blue sky. 2. The river runs rapid. 3. You must 
read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is 
most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna 

* Not infrequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation ; as, He is not 
imjust ; No man can do nothing. 



Construction of Adverbs— Continued. 193 



sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. 
He spoke up prompt. 11. He went most there. 12. He behaved very 
bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day. 

Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in 
these four Cautions. 

LESSON 94. 

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED. 
Miscellaneous Errors. 

Direction. — Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and 
correct the errors : — 

1. Begin it over again. *2. This can be done easier. 3. The house 
is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that 
long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, 1 don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no 
way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is 
as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is 
pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 
13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. 
Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply 
state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the 
man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not 
stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good 
as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet 
gone, 1 don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and 
carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but 
once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where 
it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28, The tortured man 
begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune 
was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to 
see you. 81. We publish all the information, official and otherwise. 
13 



194 



Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



LESSON 95. 



PREPOSITIONS. 

DEFINITION. — A Preposition is a word that introduces 
a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its 
principal word to the word modified. 

Composition. 

Direction. — We give below a list of the prepositions in common 
use. Make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used* 
Use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish : — 



Aboard, 


athwart, 


ere, 


till, 


about, 


before, 


for, 


to, 


above, 


behind, 


,from, 


toward, 


across, 


below, 


in, 


towards, 


after, 


beneath, 


into, 


under, 


against, 


beside, 


of, 


underneath, 


along, 


besides, 


on, 


until, 


amid, 


between, 


over, 


unto, 


amidst, 


betwixt, 


past, 


up, 


among, 


beyond, 


round, 


upon, 


amongst, 


but, 


since, 


with, 


around, 


by, 


through, 


within, 


at, 


down, 


throughout, 


without. 



Remarks. — Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstand- 
ing, pending, regarding, respecting, saving, and touching are still 
participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases 
the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere 
relations. 

But, except, and save, in such a sentence as, All but or except or 
save him were lost, are usually classed with prepositions. 



Construction of Prepositions. 195 



The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of 
(by cause of), from among, from between, from under, instead of 
(in stead of), out of, over against, and round about may be called 
compound prepositions. But from in these compounds ; as, He 
crawled from under the ruins, really introduces a phrase, the prin- 
cipal term of which is the phrase that follows from. 

Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily 
follows them is omitted ; as, He rode past ; He stands above. 



LESSON 96. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

To the Teacher.— Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate 
in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would 
mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an 
extended study of good authors. We do below all that we think it prudent or profit- 
able to do with them. He should be a man of wide and careful reading who assumes 
to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain 
words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That gram- 
marian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower 
than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up.* 

* Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach that between and betwixt 
** refer to two,' 1 are used "only when two things or sets of things are referred to." 
Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they 
always, and must they be ? " There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, 
an ass, and a toy.."— L' Estrange. " A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and 
Sweden."— J. E. Green. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and 
Ethiopia."— Gibbon. "His flight between the several worlds."— A ddison. "The 
identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases in the neuter." 
— G. P. Marsh. " The distinction between these three orders has been well expressed 
by Prof. Max Muller." — W. D. Whitney. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, 
The Imperial, and Webster's."— i£. G. White. "Betwixt the slender boughs came 
glimpses of her ivory neck."— Bryant. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our 
speech be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology 1 What 



196 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



Direction. — We give below a few words with the prepositions which 
usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these 
words combined with each of the prepositions which follow them, and 
note carefully the different relations expressed by the different preposi- 
tions : — 

(Consult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompany- 
ing word.) 

Abide at, by, with; accommodate to, with; advantage of, over; 
agree to, with; angry at, with; anxious about, for; argue against, 
with; arrive at, in; attend on or upon, to; careless about, in, of; 
communicate to, with; compare to, with; consists An, of; defend 
against, from ; die by, for, of; different from; disappointed in, of; 
distinguish by, from; familiar to, with ; impatient for, of; indulge 
in, with; influence on, over, with ; insensible of, to ; sat beside; many 



LESSON 97. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED. 
Direction. — Do with the following words as with those above : — 
Inquire after, for f into, of; intrude into, upon; joined to, with,; 
liberal of, to; live at, in, on; look after, for, on; need of; obliged 

simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for 
instance : There were forty desks in the room with ample space between them ? 

" We observe that between is not restricted to two.' 1 ''— Imperial Dictionary. " In 
all senses between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. 
It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surround- 
ing things severally and individually— among expressing a relation to them collectively 
and vaguely : we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates, 1 or ' to 
insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower. • "—The New English Dictionary. 

We have collected hundreds of instances of between used by good writers with 
three or more. 

Guard against such expressions as between each page ; a choice between one of several. 



Construction of Prepositions— Continued. 197 



for, to ; part from, with ; placed in, on ; reconcile to, with ; regard 
for, to ; remonstrate against, with ; sank beneath, in, into ; share in, 
of, with; sit in, on or upon; smile at, on; solicitous about, for ; 
strive for, with, against; taste for, of; touch at, on or upon ; useful 
for, in, to ; weary of, in, with ; yearn for, towards. 



LESSON 98. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Great care must be used in the choice of 
prepositions. 

Direction. — Correct these errors: — 

1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two 
quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was 
followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in * the water. 7. 
He fought into * the Revolution. 8. He bears a close resemblance of 
his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. 
He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. 
The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disap- 
pointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk ; he was disappointed in 
it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 
18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 
20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your 
conduct. 22. What is the matter of him ? 23. I saw him over to the 
house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to 
the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. 
I have other reasons beside f the.:9. 29. You make no use with your 



* In denotes motion or rest in a condition or place ; into, change from one condition 
or place into another. " When one is ontside of a place, he may be able to gee into 
it ; bnt he cannot do anything in it nntil he has got into it." 

t Beside = by tfoe side of ; besides = in addition to. 



198 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard tp 
work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. 
He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to 
Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent 
by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those ? 39. What 
a change a century has produced upon our country ! 40. He stays to 
school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter 
poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from 
England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and 
enjoying myself by fishing. 



LESSON 99. 

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED.* 

Caution. — Do not use prepositions needlessly. 
Direction. — Correct these errors: — 
1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in ? 

* "A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence with" we are told. Sentences 
(10) and (13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the 
rule so carelessly expressed. 

Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. 
Austin Phelps says, " A preposition as such is by no means a feeble word ; " and he 
quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus : "Never, so long as 
there is left of Plymouth Rock a piece large enough to make a gunflint of!" 
"This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English. 11 He adds, "The old 
Scotch interrogative, l What for ? 1 is as pure English in written as in colloquial 
speech. 11 

Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly common in 
English— "The language itself is inseparable from, or essentially a part of, the 
thoughts." Such sentences have been condemned, but the worst that can be urged 
against them is, that they lack smoothness. But smoothness is not always desirable. 

Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very 
common—" Powerless to affect, or to be affected by, the timed." 



Construction of Prepositions— Continued. 199 



3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last 
Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to 
see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of 
a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by ? 10. His 
servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to ? 12. 
They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book oif of the table. 14. 
He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air com- 
posed of ? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you 
been to ? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him 
a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 
21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 
23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be 
likened to ? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. 
Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering 
of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off 
of the grass. 

Caution. — Do not omit prepositions when they are 
needed. 

Direction. — Correct these errors : — 

1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I 
was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is 
unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him ? 7. He was born 
on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the 
garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of 
the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 
12. He received dispatches from England and Russia. 

Direction. — Point out the prepositions in Lessons 80 and 81, and 
name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation. 



200 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



LESSON lOO. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER 
CONNECTIVES. 

Introductory Hints. — The stars look down upon the roofs of the 
living and upon the graves of the dead, but neither the living nor the 
dead are conscious of their gaze. Here and, but, neither, and nor 
connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are 
called Co-ordinate Conjunctions. Both clauses may be independ- 
ent, or both dependent but of equal rank. 

At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as [it would seem] if the 
heavens were lighted up that the nations might behold the scene. 
Here as, if, and that connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a 
clause of higher rank, and hence are called Subordinate Conjunc- 
tions. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or 
both dependent but of unequal rank. 



DEFINITIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, 
or clauses.* 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, 
phrases, or clauses of the same rank. 

Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses 
of different rank. 

Remark. — Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper ; 
some are relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, 

* Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as and and but, connect, in thought, sen- 
tences separated by the period, and even connect paragraphs. In analysis and pars- 
ing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as intro- 
ductory. 



Classes of Conjunctions and Other Connectives. 201 



which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of 
the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the 
clauses. 

To the Teacher.— We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils 
should be able to name the different groups, and some of the most common con- 
nectives of each group. 

Co-ordinate Connectives.* 

Copulative. — And, both . . . and, as well as f are conjunctions 
proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, 
likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs. 

Adversative. — But and ivhereas are conjunctions proper. How- 
ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand* 
still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs. 

Alternative. — Neither, nor, or, either . . . or, and neither . . . 
nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive 
adverbs. 

Subordinate Connectives. 

CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are rela- 
tive pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunc- 
tive adverbs. 

CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES. 

Time. — After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, tvhen, whenever, while y 
and whilst are conjunctive adverbs. 
Place. — Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs. 

* Copulative conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought ; Adversative 
conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning ; Alternative conjunc- 
tions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76. 

t The as well as in, He, as well as I, went ; and not that in, He is as well as I am. 



202 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



Degree. — As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correla- 
tive with adjectives or adverbs. 

Manner. — As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an 
adjective or an adverb. 

Real Cause. — As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions 
proper. 

Evidence. — Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper. 

Purpose. — In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are con- 
junctions proper. 

Condition. — Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, 
provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper. 

Concession. — Although, if (= even if), notwithstanding, though* 
and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive ad- 
verb. Whatever, whichever, and ivhoevcr are relative pronouns used 
indefinitely. 

CONNECTIVES OP NOUN CLAUSES. 

If, lest, that, &n& whether * are conjunctions proper. Wliat, which, 
and ivho are pronouns introducing questions ; and how, when, whence, 
where, and why are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions. 

Direction. — Study the lists above, and point out all the connectives 
in Lessons 80 and 81, telling which are relative pronouns, which are 
•conjunctions proper, and which are conjunctive adverbs. 



To the Teacher.— If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is fouud necessary to 
abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six follow- 
ing Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but 
their omission will occasion no break in the course. 

* Etymologically, whether is restricted to two ; but it has burst the bonds of its 
etymology and is very freely used with three or more. 

The repetition of tvhethe?\ like the use of it with three or more things, has been 
condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it. 

Whether or ?w is also allowed. 



Connectives. 203 



LESSON lOL 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES. 

Direction. — Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall 
be joined by connectives named in the three subdivisions of c o-o r d i- 
nate connectives. 



LESSON 10 2. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 

Direction. — Write twenty complex sentences ivhose clauses shall be 
joined by connectives of adjective clauses, and by connectives of 
adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner. 



LESSON 103. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 

Direction. — Write twenty complex sentences ivhose clauses shall 
be joined by connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, 
evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and by 
connectives of noun clauses. 



LESSON 10 4. 

CONNECTIVES. 

Analysis. 

Direction. — Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below y 
and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze 
the sentences: — 

As may connect a clause expressing manner^ time, 
degree, cause, or evidence. 



204 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 

2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 

3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 

4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 

5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from 
the hand. 

If may connect a clause expressing condition, time, 
or concession, or it may introduce a noun clause. 

6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 

7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. 

S. Who knows if * one of the Pleiads is really missing ? 

9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on 
*he wing. 

Lest may connect a clause expressing purpose, or it 
may introduce a noun clause. 

10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 

11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation. 

Since may connect a clause expressing time, cause, or 
evidence. 

12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 

13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were 
built. 

14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were per- 
secuted. 

* MaDy grammarians say that if here is improperly used for whether. But this use 
of if is common with good authors in early and in modern English. 



Connectives— Continued. 205 



LESSON 105. 

CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED 
Analysis. 

Direction. — Tell what kinds of clauses follow the connectives below, 
and what are the usual connectives of such clauses , and then analyze 
the sentences .•— 

That may connect a noun clause, an adjective clause, 
or a clause expressing degree, cause, or purpose. 

1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 

2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii 
were buried. 

3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he may 
harden the metal. 

4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 

5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them. 

When may connect a clause expressing time, cause, 
or condition, an adjective clause or a noun clause, or 
it may connect co-ordinate clauses. 

6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 

7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 

8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 

9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 

10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common 
people ? 

11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and 
weights protested their innocence. 

Where may connect a clause expressing place, an 
adjective clause, or a noun clause. 



206 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 

13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 

14. No one has been where Moses was buried. 

While may connect a clause expressing time or con- 
cession, or it may connect co-ordinate clauses. 

15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a ma?* of talents. 

16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 

17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. 



LESSON 106. 

CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

Direction. — Use the appropriate connectives, and change these com- 
pound sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then 
analyze them : — 

(Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause ; let three express 
cause ; five, condition ; and two, concession.) 

1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have 
had it. 

2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it 
becomes carnage. 

3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 

4. You must eat, or you will die. 

5. W T isdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 

6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go 
and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 

7. Men are carrying umbrellas ; it is raining. 

8. Have ye brave sons ? look in the next fierce brawl to see them 
die. 



Construction of Connectives. 207 



9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor 
lives. 

10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a 
rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 

11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. 

Direction. — Two of the dependent clauses below express condition, 
and three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before 
each, and then analyze the sentences : — 

12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 

13. Had the Plant agenets succeeded in France, there would never 
have been an England. 

14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 

15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 

16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, more frigates 
would be found written on my heart. 



LESSON 10 7. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. 

Caution. — Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs 
may stand in correlation with other words. And may be 
accompanied by both ; as, by as, by so, or by such ; hut 
{but also and but likewise), by not only ; if, by then ; nor, 
by neither ; or, by either or by ivhether ; that, by so ; the, 
by the; though, by yet ; when, by then; and ivhere, by 
there. 

Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and 
stand where they belong. 



208 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 

Examples. — Give me neither riches nor (not or) poverty. I cannot 
find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not not 
only dogs bark) but also bite. Not only dogs (not dogs not only) bark 
but wolves also. He was neither (not neither was) rich nor poor. 

Direction. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors: — 
1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. A theatrical 
part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation 
of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 
4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New 
York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature 
but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful but he 
deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor inter- 
esting. 

Caution. — Choose apt connectives, but do not use them 
needlessly or instead of other parts of speech. 

Examples. — Seldom, if (not or) ever, should an adverb stand 
between to and the infinitive. I will try to (not and) do better next 
time. No one can deny that (not but) he has money. * A harrow is 
drawn over the ground, which (not and which) covers the seed. Who 
doubts that (not but that or but what) Napoleon lived * ? The doctor 
had scarcely left when (not but) a patient called. He has no love for 
his father or (not nor) for his mother (the negative no is felt through- 
out the sentence, and need not be repeated by nor). He was not well, 
nor (not or) was he sick {not is expended in the first clause ; nor is 
needed to make the second clause negative). 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct 
these errors : — 

1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other 
poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. 

* See foot-note, page 176. 



Construction of Connectives. 209 



3. Who can doubt but that there is a God ? 4. No one can eat nor 
drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. 
No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do 
not know as I shall like it. 8. He said that, after he had asked the 
advice of all his friends, that he was more puzzled than before. 

Caution. — Else, other, othemoise, rather, and adjectives 
and adverbs expressing a comparison are nsually followed 
by than. But else, other, and more, implying something 
additional, but not different in kind, may be followed by 
bat or besides. 

Examples. — A diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was 
no other than Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk otherwise 
than on crutches. Americans would rather travel than stay at home. 
I rose earlier than I intended. He can converse on other topics 
besides politics. 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct 
these errors : — 

1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The 
moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Cornwallis could not do 
otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. 
He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. 

Caution. — Two or more connected words or phrases 
referring to another word or phrase should each make 
good sense with it. 

Examples. — I have always (add said) and still do say that labor is 
honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has 
(add lived) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but 
not so tall (not The boy is stronger, but not so tall, as his sister). 
14 



210 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct 
these errors: — 

1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so- 
useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, 
than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will iearn their 
lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 
6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may 
be published. 

LESSON 108. 

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. 

Direction. — Correct these errors, telling what Caution each vio- 
lates : — 

1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers : this city in Africa, and 
that in Europe ; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean,, 
the other on the southern. 2. The right and left lung were diseased. 
3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed 
for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which 
are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thim- 
bles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. 
A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 
10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. 
The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up 
insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I 
only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called 
yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward 
onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 
18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what 
wharf does the boat stop at ? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He 
would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short 



Various Uses of What, That, and But. 211 



distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and 
tall. 2o. He hasn't, 1 don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would 
rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously 
proud. 28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. 29. He has 
gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four ? 
31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. 
The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the 
length of your finger. 31. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. 
The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The death is 
inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall 
we meet together ? 39. He talks like you do.* 40. This word has a 
different source than that. 41. No sooner did I arrive when he called. 



LESSON 10 9. 

VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. 

What may be used as a relative pronoun, an inter- 
rogative pronoun, a definitive adjective, an adverb, 
and an interjection. 

Examples. — He did what was right. What did he say ? What 
man is happy with the toothache ? What with confinement and what 
with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here 
what = partly, and modifies the phrase following it). What! you a 
lion ? 

That may be used as a relative pronoun, an adjective 

* The use of the verb do as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most 
remarkable idioms in the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms 
and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and intransitive, regular and 
irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence is euphonic ; it abbreviates expression, 
and therefore is energetic. 



212 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



pronoun, a definitive adjective, a conjunction, and a 
conjunctive adverb. 

Examples. — He that does a good deed is instantly ennobled. That 
is heroism. That man is a hero. We eat that we may live. It was 
so cold that the mercury froze. 

But may be used as a conjunction, an adverb, an 
adjective, and a preposition. 

Examples. — The ostrich is a bird, but (adversative conjunction) it 
cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls but (= unless — subordinate conjunc- 
tion) God wills it. He was all but (conjunction or preposition) dead = 
He was all dead, but he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that 
line) except (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked but (conjunctive 
adverb) he loves virtue = No man is wicked to that degree in which 
he loves not virtue (so = to that degree, but = in which not). We meet 
but (adverb = only) to part. Life is but (adjective = only) a dream. 
All but (preposition = except) him had fled. The tears of love were 
hopeless but (preposition = except) for thee. I cannot but remember == 
I cannot do anything but (preposition = except) remember. There is 
no fireside but (preposition) has one vacant chair (except the one which 
has) ; or, regarding but as a negative relative = that not, the sen- 
tence = There is no fireside that has not one vacant chair. 

Direction. — Study the examples given above, point out the exact 
use of what, that, and but in these sentences, and then analyze 
the sentences : — 

1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal 
is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals 
a mother's ? 4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were 
all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 
7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these 



Review Questions. 213 



barren boughs ? 9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 
10. What ! I the weaker vessel ? 11. Whom should I obey but thee ? 
12. What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a for- 
tune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat 
what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should 
have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, 
would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return. 



LESSON UO. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 85. — Define a noun. What is the distinction between a 
common and a proper noun ? Why is music a common noun ? What 
is a collective noun ? An abstract noun ? Define a pronoun. What 
are the classes of pronouns ? Define them. What is an antecedent ? 

Lesson 86. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting he, it, and 
they ; the needless use of pronouns ; the two styles of the pronoun ; 
the use of them for those, and of what for that ; and the use of who, 
which, that, and what. 

Lesson 87. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected 
relative clauses ; the relative in clauses not restrictive ; the use of that 
instead of who or which ; the position of the relative clause ; and the 
use of this and that, the one and the other. 

Lesson 89. — Define an adjective. What two classes are there ? 
Define them. What adjectives do not limit ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 90. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of 
the adjectives an, a, and the ; and the use of a few and few, a little 
and little. 

Lesson 91. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice 
and the position of adjectives. 



214 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 



Lesson 92. — Define a verb. What are transitive verbs ? Intransi- 
tive ? Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and 
the object complement ? What are regular verbs ? Irregular ? 
Illustrate. What are the several classes of adverbs ? Define them. 
What is a conjunctive adverb ? 

Lesson 93. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice 
and the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use 
of adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs. 



LESSON 111. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS-CONTINUED. 

Lesson 95. — Define a preposition. Name some of the common 
prepositions. What is said of some prepositions ending in ing ? Of 
but, except, and save ? Of certain compound prepositions ? When 
do prepositions become adverbs ? 

Lesson 98. — Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of prep- 
ositions. What, in general, is the difference between in and into ? 

Lesson 99. — Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the 
use of prepositions. 

Lesson 100. — Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes 
of conjunctions, and what is their difference ? What other parts of 
speech besides conjunctions connect ? What are adverbs that con- 
nect called ? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives 
subdivided ? Give some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive 
adverbs of each class. What three kinds of clauses are connected by 
subordinate connectives ? The connectives of adverb clauses are sub- 
divided into what classes ? Give a leading connective of each class. 

Lessons 104, 105. — Illustrate two or more offices of each of the 
connectives as, if, lest, since, that, when, where, and while. 



General Review. 215 



Lesson 107. — Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the 
construction of connectives. 
Lesson 109. — Illustrate the offices of what, that, and but. 



GENERAL REVIEW. 

Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and 
Interjection. 

{The numbers refer to Lessons.) 
THE CONJUNCTION. Classes, j gSSS^" } ioMW - 

THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99). 
THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21). 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS 
OF SPEECH. 



LESSON 112. 

Introductory Hints. — You have learned that two words may 
express a thought, and that the thought may be Taried by adding 
modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of 
a word may be changed by simply changing its form. The English 
language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of 
the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked 
by changes in form. These changes in the form, the meaning, and 
the use of the parts of speech we call their Modifications.* 

* Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc. — what we 
here call Modifications — to form, find themselves within bounds which they continu- 
ally overleap. They define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet 
speak of nouns "plural in form but singular in sense, 1 ' or "singular in form but 
plural in sense ; " that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form 
but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist 
that nouns have three cases, though only two forms ; and speak of the nominative 
and the objective case of the noun, " although in fact the two cases are always the 
same in form" — the two forms always the same in form ! 

On the other hand, those that make what we call Modifications denote only relations 
or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they ask 
the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we 
suppose, that the " condition " of a noun will be sounded or written ; and they speau 

217 



218 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. 

NUMBER. 

The boy shouts. The boys shout. The form of the subject boy is 
changed by adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. Boy de- 
notes one lad ; boys, two or more lads. This change in the form and 
the meaning of nouns is called Number ; the word boy, denoting one 
thing, is in the Singular Number ; and boys, denoting more than 
one thing, is in the Plural Number. Number expresses only the 
distinction of one from more than one ; to express more precisely 
how many, we use adjectives, and say two boys, four boys, many or 
several boys. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in 
their form, meaning, and nse. 

Number is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes one thing or more than one. 

The Singular Number denotes one thing. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one thing. 

NUMBER FORMS. 

RULE. — The plural of nouns is regularly formed hy adding 
s to the singular. 

To this rule there are some exceptions. 

of "a noun in the singular with a plural application, 1 ' in which expression singular 
must be taken to mean singular form to save it from sheer nonsense. 

We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what 
by the common use of the word we are allowed ; viz., to take Modifications with such 
breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to form. 
Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and 
use of words. But we shall use Modifications to indicate changes in meaning and use 
when the form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing 
that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form. 



Number Forms. 219 



When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite 
with that of s, es is added and forms another syllable.* 

Remark. — Such words as horse, niche, and cage drop the final e 
when es is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 127. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and 
note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound 
of s :— 

Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, 
face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. 

The following nouns ending in o preceded by a conso- 
nant add es without increase of syllables. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 

Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, 
motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico {pes or os), potato, tornado, 
torpedo, veto, volcano. 

The following nouns in o preceded by a consonant add 
s only. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — ■ 

Canto, domino (os or oes), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, 
octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (os or oes). 

Nouns in o preceded by a vowel add s. 

Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. 

* In Anglo-Saxon, as was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In 
later English, as was changed to es, which became the regular plural ending ; as, 
bird-es, cloud-es. In modern English, e is dropped, and s is joined to the singular 
without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an s-sound, the original 
syllable es is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite. 



220 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Common nouns* in y after a consonant change y into i 
and add es without increase of syllables. Nouns in y 
after a vowel add s. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 

Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy, f daisy, essay, fairy, 
fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, 
valley, vanity; 

The following nouns change / or fe into ves. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 

Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff,}: 
thief, wharf, § wife, wolf. 

The following nouns in f and fe are regular. 
Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 
Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, 
reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif. 

(Nouns in ff, except staff, are regular ; as, cuff, cuffs.) 

The following plurals are still more irregular. 
Direction. — Learn to form the following plurals : — 

Child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ; 
mouse, mice ; Mr. , Messrs. ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women. 
(For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.) 

* See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words as lady and fancy were 
spelled ladle, fancie. The modern plural simply retains the old spelling and adds s. 

t XT after q is a consonant. 

% Staff (a stick or support), staves or staffs ; staff (a body of officers), staffs. The 
compounds of staff are regular ; as, , 

§ In England, generally wharfs. 



Number Forms— Continued. 221 



LESSON 1 13. 

NUMBER FORMS-CONTINUED. 

Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain 
their original plural forms. Some of these take the 
English plural also. 
Direction. — Learn to form the following plurals : — 
Analysis, analyses ; antithesis, antitheses ; appendix, appendices or 
appendixes ; automaton, automata or automatons ; axis, axes ; bandit, 
banditti or bandits ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux or beaus ; cherub, 
cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum, data ; ellipsis, ellipses ; 
erratum, errata ; focus, foci ; fungus, fungi or funguses ; genus, 
genera ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui ; madame, 
mesdames ; magus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda or memoran- 
dums ; monsieur, messieurs ; nebula, nebulae ; oasis, oases ; parenthe- 
sis, parentheses ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii or radiuses ; 
seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; stratum, strata ; synopsis, synopses ; 
terminus, termini ; vertebra, vertebrae ; vortex, vortices or vortexes. 

The following compound nouns, in which the principal 
word stands first, vary the first word ; as, sons-in-law. 
Direction. — Form the plural of the following words : — 
Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux,* commander-in-chief, 
court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war. 

The following, and most compounds, vary the last word ; 
as, pailfuls,f gentlemen. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — 

* Plural, billets-doux, pronounced bW -ibrdbUz? . 

t Pails full is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each 
full. 



222 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Courtyard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow - servant, fisherman, 
Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man- 
trap, mouthful, pianoforte, portemonnaie, spoonful, stepson, tete-a- 
tete, tooth-brush. 

The following nouns (except Norman) are not compounds 
of man — add s to all. 

Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. 

The following compounds vary both parts ; as, man- 
singer, men-singers. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the folloiving nouns : — 

Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. 

Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a 
title form the plural by varying either the title or the 
name ; as, the Miss Clarks or the Misses Clark ; but, when 
the title Mrs. is used, the name is usually varied ; as, the 
Mrs. Clarks.* 

Direction. — Form the plural of the folloiving compounds : — 

Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. 
A title used with two or more different names is made 
plural ; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and 
Maynard. 

Direction. — Put each of the following expressions in its proper 
form : — 

* Of the two forms, the Miss Clarks and the Misses Clark, we believe that the 
former is most used by the best authors. The latter, except in formal notes or when 
the title is to be emphasized, is rather stiff if not pedantic. Some authorities say 
that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied ; as, the two 
Miss Clarks. 

The forms, the Misses Clarks and the tiuo Mrs. Clark, have little authority. 



Number Forms— Continued. 



223 



General Lee and Jackson ; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott ; Mr, 
Green, Stacy, & Co. 

Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe 

and s to form the plural * ; as, a's, 2's, — '$. 

Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following characters : — 

S, i, t, +, x, f, 9, 1, i, 5, 3. 



LESSON 1 14. 

NUMBER FORMS-CONTINUED. 

Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. 
Direction. — Learn these plurals and their meanings : — 



Horse, 



/ brothers (by blood), 
Brother, -j brethren (of the same 

( society). 

/ cannons (individuals), 
Cannon, -j cannon (in a collective 

( ' sense). 

rdies (stamps for coin- T , 

J ™g), 

j dice (cubes for gam- 
L ing). 

( fishes (individuals), 
( fish (collection). 
( feet (parts of the body), 
{ foot (foot-soldiers). 
( geniuses (men of gen- 
\ ius), 



Die, 

Fish,f 
Foot, 



Genius, 



genii (spirits). 



( heads (parts of the 
Head, -j body), 

( head (of cattle). 

j horses (animals), 

( horse (horse-soldiers). 

r indexes (tables of ref er- 

J ence), 

j indices (signs in al- 

^ gebra). 

pennies (distinct coins), 
pence (quantity in 
value). 

{ sails (pieces of canvas), 

( sail (vessels). 

t shots (number of times 

< fired), 

( shot (number of balls). 



Penny, 
Sail, 



Shot, 



* Some good writers form the plural of words named merely as words, in the same 
way ; as, the ifs and and"s ; but the O Is here unnecessary. 

t The names of several sorts of fist' s, herring, shad, trout, etc. are used in the 
same way. The compounds of .fish. -h. have the same form in both numbers. 



224 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The following nouns and pronouns have the same form 
in both numbers. 

Direction. — Study the following list :— 

Bellows, corps,* deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), 
series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that (relative), what, 
any, none. 

(The following have two forms in the plural). 

Apparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; heathen, heathen or heathens. 

(The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when 
used with numerals ; they add 5 in other cases ; as, four score, by 
scores.) 

Dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. 

The following nouns have no plural. 

(These are generally namps of materials, qualities, or sciences.) 

Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can 
have no plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or 
things made of it are referred to ; as, cottons, coffees, tins, coppers. 

Direction. — Study the following list of words : — 

Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not 
a book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, 
molasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water. 

The following plural forms are commonly used in the 
singular. 

Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of 
sciences in ics), amends, measles, news. 

The following words are always plural. 
(Such words are generally names of things double or multiform in 
their character.) 

* The singular is pronounced kor, the plural Tcorz. 



Review in Number. 225 



Direction. — Study the following list : — 

Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, 
literati, mumps, nippers, oats, pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, 
snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, victuals, vitals. 

The following were originally singular forms, but they 
are now treated as plural. 

Alms (Anglo-Saxon celmcesse), eaves (A. S. efese), riches (Norman- 
French richesse). 

The following have no singular corresponding in mean- 
ing. 

Colors (flag), compasses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), 
letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service), 
morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays 
(corsets), vespers (evening service). 

(The singular form is sometimes an adjective.) 
Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. 

Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individ- 
uals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when 
the collection as a whole is thought of. 

Examples. — The committee were unable to agree, and they asked 
to be discharged. A committee was appointed, and its report will 
soon be made. 

(Collective nouns have plural forms ; as, committees, armies.) 



LESSON 115. 

REVIEW IN NUMBER. 

Direction. — Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns 
in the following list, and the singular of those that are plural; give 
15 



226 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



the Rule or the Remark that applies to each ; and note those that have 
no plural, and those that have no singular : — 

Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, col- 
ony, piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flagstaff, hand- 
kerchief, Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, 
genius, bagnio, theory, galiey, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, 
man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant, Frenchman, German, man-ser- 
vant, Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and Smith, x , ■}, deer, series, bellows, 
molasses, pride, politics, news, sunfish, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, 
greens, who, that. 

Direction. — Give five words that have no plural, five that have no 
singular, and five that have the same form in both numbers. 

Direction. — Correct the folloiving plurals, and give the Remark 
that applies to each: — 

Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chim- 
^ies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses, 
genuses, mother - in - laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth - brushes, 
mouthsful, attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ins, swines. 



LESSON 116. 

NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. 

The number of a noun may be determined not only 
by its form but also by the verb, the adjective, and the 
pronoun used in connection with it. 

Remark. — These scissors are so dull that I cannot use them. The 
plurality of scissors is here made known in four ways. In the follow- 
ing sentence this, is, and it are incorrectly used : This scissors is so 
dull that I cannot use it. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Gender. 227 



Direction.— Construct sentences in which the number of each of 
the following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, by 
the adj ective, and by the pronoun used in connection with it : — 

(With the singular nouns use the verbs is, was, and has been ; the 
adjectives an, one, this, and that ; the pronouns he, his, him, she, her, 
it, and its.) 

(With the plural nouns use the verbs are, were, and have been ; the 
adjectives these, those, and two ; the pronouns they, their, and them.) 

Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, trout, 
iron, irons, news, eaves, riches, oats, vermin, molasses, Misses, breth- 
ren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, 
meeting. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in which the first three of the fol- 
lowing adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth 
as a plural subject, and the remainder both as singular and as plural 



Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. 



LESSON 1 1 7. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-GENDER. 

Introductory Hints. — The lion was caged. The lioness was caged. 
In the first sentence something is said about a male lion, and in the 
second something is said about a female lion. The modification of 
the noun to denote the sex of the thing which it names is called 
Gender. Lion, denoting a male animal, is in the Masculine Gen- 
der; and lioness, denoting a female animal, is in the Feminine 
Gender. Names of things that are without sex are said to be in the 
Neuter Gender. Such nouns as cousin, child, friend, neighbor are 



W&5 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



either masculine or feminine. Such words are sometimes said to be 
in the Common Gender. 

Sex belongs to the thing ; and gender, to the noun that names the 
thing. Knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know 
the gender of the noun in English that names it ; for in our language 
gender follows the sex. But in such modern languages as the French 
and the German, and in Latin and Greek, the gender of nouns naming 
things without reference to sex is determined by the likeness of their 
endings in sound to the endings of words denoting things with sex. 
The German for table is a masculine noun, the French is feminine, 
and the English,* of course, is neuter. 



DEFINITIONS. 
Gender is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes sex. 
The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex. 
The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex 
The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex. 

Gender Forms. 

No English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but 
a few have different forms to distinguish the masculine 
from the feminine. 

The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in 
three ways : — 

1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 

2d. By different words in the compound names. 

3d. By using words wholly or radically different. 

* In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, as 
in the French and the German ; but, since the union of the Norman-French with the 
Anglo-Saxon to form the English, gender has followed sex. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Gender. 229 



Ess* is the most common ending for feminine nouns. 

Direction. — Form the feminine of each of the following masculine 
nouns by adding ess : — 

Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127), 
heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), 
prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. 

(Drop the vowel e or o in the ending of the masculine, and add ess.) 

Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, 
enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter 

(Drop the masculine er or or, and add the feminine ess.) 

Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. 

(The following are somewhat irregular.) 

Direction. — Learn these forms : — 

Abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; mar- 
quis, marchioness ; master, mistress ; negro, negress. 

Ess was formerly more common than now. Such words 
as editor and author are now frequently used to denote 
persons of either sex. 

Direction. — Give five nouns ending in er or or that may be 
applied to either sex. 

Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in 
the feminine. 

Direction. — Learn the following forms: — 

Administrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle ; 
Charles, Charlotte ; Cornelius, Cornelia ; czar, czarina ; don, donna ; 

* The suffix ess came into the English language from the Norman-French. It dis- 
placed the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. estre, old English ster). 
The original meaning of ster is preserved in spinster. Br (A. S. ere) was originally a 
masculine suffix ; but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex ; 
as, read-er, speak-er. 



230 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



equestrian, equestrienne ; executor, executrix ; Francis, Frances ; 
George, Georgiana ; Henry, Henrietta ; hero, heroine ; infante, 
infanta ; Jesse, Jessie ; Joseph, Josephine ; Julius, Julia or Juliet ; 
landgrave, landgravine ; Louis, Louisa or Louise ; Paul, Pauline ; 
signore or signor, signora ; sultan, sultana ; testator, testatrix ; 
widower, widow. 

In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed 
or affixed. 

Direction. — Learn the following forms: — 

Billy-goat, nanny-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit ; cock-sparrow, 
hen-sparrow ; Englishman, Englishwoman ; gentleman, gentle- 
woman ; grandfather, grandmother ; he-bear, she-bear ; landlord, 
landlady ; man-servant, maid-servant ; merman, mermaid ; Mr. Jones, 
Mrs. or Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen. 

Words wholly or radically different are used to dis- 
tinguish the masculine from the feminine. 

(This is a matter pertaining to the dictionary rather than to 
grammar.) 

Direction. — Learn the following forms : — 

Bachelor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar or 
monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ; 
sir, madam ; stag, hind ; steer, heifer ; wizard, witch ; youth, damsel 
or maiden. 

The pronoun has three gender forms: — 
Masculine he, feminine she, and neuter it.* 

Direction. — Give five examples of each of the three ways of 
distinguishing the masculine from the feminine. 

* It, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female ; 
as, It was John; It was Mary. 



Gender Forms in Construction. 231 



LESSON 118. 

GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. 

Gender as a matter of orthography is of some impor- 
tance, but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving 
the correct use of the pronouns lie, she, and it. 

When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of 
both sexes, it is commonly represented by a masculine 
pronoun.* 

Example. — Every person has his faults. 

The names of animals are often considered as mascu- 
line or feminine without regard to the real sex. 

Examples. — The grizzly bear is the most savage of his race. The 
cat steals upon her prey. 

Remark. — The writer employs he or she according as he fancies 
the animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. He is 
more frequently employed than she. 

The neuter pronoun it is often used with reference to 
animals and very young children, the sex being disre- 
garded. 

Examples. — When the deer is alarmed, it gives two or three grace- 
ful springs. The little child reached out its hand to catch the sun- 
beam. 

Remark. — It is quite generally used instead of he or she, in refer- 

* When it is necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the femi- 
nine pronoun should be used ; as, Each person was required to name his or her 
favorite flower. 



232 lodifications of the Parts of Speech. 



ring to an animal, unless some masculine or feminine quality seems 
to predominate. 

Inanimate things are often represented as living beings, 
that is, they are personified, and are referred to by the 
pronoun he or she. 

Example. — The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy 
mold. 

Remark. — The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or 
sublimity are regarded as masculine ; and the names of those distin- 
guished for grace, beauty, gentleness, or productiveness are considered 
as feminine. Personification adds beauty and animation to style. 

Direction. — Study what is said above, and then fill each of the 
blanks in the following sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a 
neuter pronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection : — 

1 . No one else is so much alone in the universe as who denies 

God. 2. A person's manners not unfrequently indicate morals. 

3. Everybody should think for . 4. The forest's leaping panther 

shall yield spotted hide. 5. The catamount lies in the boughs to 

watch prey. 6. The mocking-bird poured from little throat 

floods of delirious music. 7. The wild beast from cavern sprang, 

the wild bird from grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills song. 

9. The elephant is distinguished for strength and sagacity. 10. 

The bat is nocturnal in habits. 11. The dog is faithful to 

master. 12. The child was unconscious of danger. 13. The fox 

is noted for cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered then 

beauty and chivalry. 15. Despair extends raven wing. 

16. Life mocks the idle hate of arch-enemy, Death. 17. Spring 

comes forth work of gladness to contrive. 18. Truth is fearless, 

yet is meek and modest. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Person and Case. 233 



Direction. — Write sentences in which the things named below shall 
be personified by means of masculine pronouns : — 
Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. 

Direction. — Write sentences in which the things named below shall 
be personified by means of feminine pronouns : — 

Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. 

Caution. — Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun 
when referring to the same antecedent. 

Direction. — Correct these errors : — 

1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers 
so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 
2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the 
pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself 
with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes deso- 
lated by it mourn over her cruelty. 



LESSON 119. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-PERSON AND CASE. 

Introductory Hints. — Number and gender, as you have learned, 
are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns — 
number being almost always indicated by form, or inflection ; gender, 
sometimes. There are two modifications which do not refer to changes 
in the meaning of nouns and pronouns but to their different uses and 
relations. These uses and relations are not generally indicated by 
form, or inflection. 

I, Paul, have written. Paul, thou art beside thyself. He brought 
Paul before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word Paul has 
three different uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In 
the first it is used to name the speaker ; in the second, to name the one 



234 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



spoken to ; in the third, to name the one spoken of. These different 
uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses 
constitute the modification called Person. I, thou, and he are per- 
sonal pronouns, and, as you see, distinguish person by their form, i", 
denoting the speaker, is in the First Person ; thou, denoting the one 
spoken to, is in the Second Person ; and he, denoting the one spoken 
of, is in the Third Person. 

Instead of J a writer or speaker may use the plural we ; and through 
courtesy it came to be customary, except among the F/iends, or in the 
language of prayer and poetry, to use the plural you instead of thou. 

The tear hilled the man. The man hilled the bear. The bear's 
grease was made into hair oil. In the first sentence the bear is repre- 
sented as performing an act ; in the second, as receiving an act ; *in 
the third, as possessing something. These different uses of nouns and 
pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modi- 
fication called Case. A noun used as subject is in the Nominative 
Case ; used as object complement it is in the Objective Case ; and 
used to denote possession it is in the Possessive Case. 

Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case ; but of 
nouns the possessive case is the only one that is now marked by a 
peculiar form. We inflect below * a noun from the Anglo-Saxon, 

* The Anglo-Saxon cases are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative ; 
the Latin are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative ; the 
English are nominative, possessive (genitive), and objective. 



Anglo-Saxon. 
Hlaford, lord. 
Singular. Plural. 
Nom. hlaford, hlaford-a*. 
Gen. hlaford-e*, hlaford-a. 
Dat. hlaford-e, hlaford-wm. 
Ace. hlaford, hlaford-a*. 
Voc. hlaford, hlaford-a*. 



Latin. 
Dominus, lord. 
Singular. Plural. 
Nom. domin-i«*, domin-i. 
Gen. domin-i, domin-ort*m. 
Dat. domino, domin-i*. 
Ace. domin-um, domin-o*. 
Voc. domin-e, domin-i. 
Ab. domin-o, domin-i*. 



English. 
Lord. 

Singular. 
Nom. lord, 
Pos. lord-'*, 
Obj. lord ; 

Plural. 
Nom. lord-*, 
Pos. lord-*', 
Obj. lord-*. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Person and Case. 235 



and one from the Latin, the parent of the Norman-French, in order 

that you may see how cases and the inflections to mark them have 

been dropped in English. In English, prepositions have largely 

taken the place of case forms, and it is thought that by them our 

language can express the many relations of nouns to other words 

in the sentence better than other languages can by their cumbrous 

machinery of inflection. 

) 

DEFINITIONS. 

Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. 

The First Person denotes the one speaking. 

The Second Person denotes the one spoken to. 

The Third Person denotes the one spoken of. 

A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as 
an explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; 
as, I, John, saw these things ; We Americans are always 
in a hurry.* 

A noun is of the second person when used as explana- 
tory of a pronoun of the second person, or when used 
independently as a term of address ; as, Ye crags and 
peaks ; Idle time, John, is ruinous. 

Direction. — Compose sentences in ivhich there shall be two examples 
of nouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons. 
Person Forms. 

Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of 
words that have distinctive person forms. 

* It is doubtful whether a nouu is ever of the first person. It may be said that, in 
the sentence I, John, saw these things, John speaks of his own name, the expression 
meaning, I, and my name is John, etc. 



236 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 124, 
select and write in one list all the first person forms ; in another list, 
all the second person forms; and in another, all the third person 
forms. 

Person is regarded in grammar because the verb some- 
times varies its form to agree with the person of its 
subject ; as, / see ; Thou seest ; He sees. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Case is that modification of a noun or pronoun which 
denotes its office in the sentence. 

The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes 
its office as subject or as attribute complement. 

The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes 
its office as possessive modifier. 

The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes 
its office as object complement, or as principal word in a 
prepositional phrase. 

A noun or pronoun used independently is said to be 
in the nominative case. 

Examples. — I am, dear madam, your friend. Alas, poor Yorick I 
He being dead, we shall live. Liberty, it has fled ! (See Lesson 44.) 

A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in 
the same case as the word explained — " is put by appo- 
sition in the same case." 

Examples. — The first colonial Congress, that of 1774, addressed 
the King, George III. He buys his goods at Stewart's, the dry- 
goods merchant. 



Nouns and Pronouns— Person and Case. 237 



A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in 
the objective case. 

Examples. — They made him speaker. He made it all it is. 

A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a 
participle or an infinitive is in the same case (Nom. or 
Obj.) as the word to which it relates as attribute. 

Examples. — Being an artist, he appreciated it. I proved it to be 
him. 

Remark. — When the assumed subject of the participle or the 
infinitive is a possessive, the attribute complement is said to be in the 
nominative case ; as, Its being he * should make no difference. When 
the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly, without an assumed 
subject, its attribute complement is also said to be in the nominative 
case ; as, To be he * is to be a scholar ; Being a scholar is not being an 
idler. 

Direction. — Study carefully the Definitions and the Remark above, 
and then compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put 
in the nominative case in four ways ; in the objective in five ways; 
in the possessive in tivo ways. 

* The case of he in these examples is rather doubtful. The nominative and the 
objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems 
impossible to determine the usage. It is therefore a matter of no great practical 
importance. 

Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the attribute comple- 
ment of the abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing for and some other word 
to be understood ; as, For one to be him, etc. Others, reasoning from the German, 
to which our language is closely allied, would put this complement in the nominative. 

The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same in sense as 
the principal subject, him, in the sentence I wish {me or myself) to be him, is the 
proper form, being in the same case as me. 



238 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 120. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 



Direction. — Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of 
each noun and pronoun : — 

1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be 
always a child. 

2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. 

3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. 

Explanation. — Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case 
because equivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 
(See Lesson 35.) 

4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on 
God. 

5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. 

6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. 

Explanation. — Teacher, introduced by as and used without a 

possessive sign, is explanatory of Arnold's. 

7. Worship thy Creator, God ; and obey his Son, the Master, 
King, and Saviour of men. 

8. Bear ye one another's * burdens. 

Explanation. — The singular one is explanatory of the plural ye, 
or one another's may be treated as a compound. 

9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance ? 

10. you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome ! 

11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of 
dramatists. 

* For the use of one another, see Lesson 124. 



Parsing. 239 

12. Think'st tbou this heart could feel a moment's joy, thou being 
absent ? 

13. Our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but his 
country. 

(For the case of him see explanation of (3) above.) 

14. I will attend to it myself. 

Explanation. — Myself may be treated as explanatory of L 

15. This news of papa's * puts me all in a flutter. 

16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine * ? 



LESSON 121. 

PARSING. 

To the Teacher. — We do not believe that the chief end of the study of grammar 
is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, though without question analysis 
reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence, and is immeasurably 
superior to it as intellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing alto- 
gether, but would give it a subordinate place. 

But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical 
quoting, in parsing, of " Rules of Syntax." When a pupil has said that such a noun 
is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is gained by a repetition of the 
definition in the Rule : "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb is 
in the nominative case " ? Let the reasons for the disposition of words, when given 
at all, be specific. 

Parsing a word is giving its classification, its modifica- 
tions, and its syntax, i. e., its relation to other words. 

Direction. — Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns 
found in the first ten sentences of Lesson 120. For the agreement of 
pronouns, see Lesson 142. 

* See second foot-note, page 247. 



240 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Model for Written Parsing. — Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, 
was beheaded by James I. 



CLASSIFICATION. 



Nouns. 

Elizabeth's 
favorite 
Raleigh 
James I. 



Kind. 

Prop. 
Com. 
Prop. 



MODIFICATIONS. 



Person. 
3d 



Number. 
Sing. 



Gender. 



Fern. 
Mas. 



Pos. 
Nom. 

Obj. 



Pos. Mod. of favorite. 
Sub. of was beheaded. 
Expl. Mod. of favorite. 
Prin. word in Prep, phrase. 



To the Teacher.— For exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 28, 
29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Other exercises may be 
selected from examples previously given for analysis, and parsing continued as long 
as you think it profitable. 



LESSON 12 2, 

CASE FORMS-NOUNS. 

Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common 
to the nominative and the objective case, and the possess- 
ive form. 

RULE. — The Possessive Case of nouns is formed in the 
singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the 
letter s ('s) ; in the plural by adding (') only. If the plural 
does not end in s, ('s) are both added.* 



* In Anglo Saxon, es was a genitive (possessive) ending of the singular ; as, stan, 
genitive stan-es. In old English, es and is were both used. In modern English, the 
vowel is generally dropped, and (') stands in its place. The use of the apostrophe 
has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. 

Some have said that our possessive ending is a remnant of the pronoun his. Phrases 
like, " Mars his sword," " The Prince his Players," " King Lewis his satisfaction " are 
abundant in Early, and in Middle, English. But it has been proved that the his in 



Case Forms— Nouns. 241 



Examples. — Boy's, boys', men's. 

Remark. — To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, 
the s in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted ; as, conscience 1 
sake, goodness' sake, Achilles 1 sword, Archimedes' screw (the s in the 
words following the possessive here having its influence). In prose this 
omission of the s should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines 
to the use of s in such names as Miss Rounds' s, Mrs. Hemanss, King 
James's, ivitness's, prince's. Without the s there would be no dis- 
tinction, in spoken language, between Miss Hound's and Miss 
Bounds', Mrs. Heman's and Mrs. Hemans'. 

Remark. — Pronounce the ('s) as a separate syllable (-= es) when 
the sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. 

Remark. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nomi- 
native, some place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distin- 
guish it from the possessive singular ; as, singular, sheep's; plural, 



Direction. — Study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and then 
write the possessive singular and the possessive plural 
of each of the following nouns : — 

Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, 
hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, 
fairy, lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, 
child, goose, mouse, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, 
swine. 

Compound names and groups of words that may be 

suck expressions is an error that gained its wide currency largely through the confu- 
sion of early English orthography. 

Professor Hadley has clearly shown that the Saxon termination has never dropped 
out of the language, but exists in the English possessive ending to-day, 
16 



242 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



treated as compound names add the possessive sign, to the 
last word ; as, a man-of-war's rigging, the queen of Eng- 
land's palace,* Frederick the Great's verses. 

Remark. — The possessive plural of such terms is not used. 

The preposition of with the objective is often used 
instead of the possessive case form — David's Psalms = 
Psalms of David. 

Remarks. — To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or 
the idea of belonging to, of is used more frequently than fs). 

The possessive sign ('s) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, 
and of animals and things personified. We do not say the tree's leaves, 
Hit the leaves of the tree. 

The possessive sign however is often added to names of things 
which we frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, 
and to names of periods of time, and to words denoting value ; as, the 
earth's surface, fortune's smile, eternity's stillness, a year's interest, 
a day's work, a dollar's worth, two cents' worth. 

By the use of of such expressions as witness's statement, mothers- 
in-law's faults may be avoided. 

Direction. — Study carefully the principles and Remarks given 
above, and then make each of the following terms indicate possession, 
using either the possessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem 
most appropriate, and join an appropriate name denoting the thing 



Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid- 

* In parsing the words queen and England separately, the Cs) must be regarded as 
belonging to queen ; but the whole phrase queen of Englancfs may be treated as one 
a©un in the possessive case. 



Construction of Possessive Forms. 243 



de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else,* Jeffer- 
son, enemy, eagle, gunpowder, book, house, chair, torrent, sun, ocean, 
mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess, Socrates. 



LESSON 12 3. 

CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. 

As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a 
distinctive inflection, it is only with this case that mis- 
takes can occur in construction. 

Caution. — When several possessive nouns modify the 
same word and imply common possession, the possessive 
sign is added to the last only. If they modify different 
words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to each. 

Explanation. — William and Henry's boat ; William's and Henry's 
boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as 
jointly owning a boat ; in the second, each is represented as owning 
a separate boat — boat is understood after William's. 

Remark. — When the different possessors are thought of as separate 
or opposed, the sign may be repeated although joint possession is 
implied ; as, He was his father's, mother's, and sister's favorite ; He 
was the King's, as well as the people's, favorite. 

Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons: — 

1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's 
reign. 2. Messrs. Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co.'s business pros- 

* In such expressions as eve?ybody else^s business, the possessive sign is removed 
from the noun and attached to the adjective. (See Lesson 124.) The possessive sign 
should generally be placed immediately before the name of the thing possessed. 



244 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



pers. 3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. Amer- 
ica was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 5. We 
were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 6. This was the sage 
and the poet's theme. 

Explanation. — If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is 
repeated. 

7. It was the king, not the people's, choice. 8. They are Thomas, 
as well as James's, books. 

Caution. — When a possessive noun is followed by an 
explanatory word, the possessive sign is added to the 
explanatory word only. But, if the explanatory word has 
several modifiers, or if there are more explanatory words 
than one, only the principal word takes the sign. 

Remarks. — When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, 
and the name of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign 
may be added either to the modifying or to the principal word ; as, 
We stopped at Tiffany, the jeweler's, or We stopped at Tiffany's, the 
jeweler. 

If the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately 
before it takes the sign. 

Direction. — Correct these errors: — 

1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 2. I took tea at Brown's, 
my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen 
of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of Eng- 
land's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 
6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's and 
statesman's. 7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. 

Direction. — Tell which of the sentences above may be improved by 
using other forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution.) 



Construction ot Possessive Forms. 245 



Caution. — The relation of possession may be expressed 
not only by ('s) and by of but by the use of such phrases as 
"belonging to, property of, etc. In constructing sentences 
be careful to secure smoothness and clearness and variety 
by taking advantage of these different forms. 

Direction. — Improve the following sentences : — 

1. This is my wife's father's opinion. 

Correction. — This is the opinion of my wife's father, or held b~y 
my wife's father. 

2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's 
interest differs widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the 
daughter of George I. of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's 
drawings have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of 
the wife of my brother have been much admired. 

Of is not always equivalent to the ('s). 

Explanation. — The president's reception means the reception given 
by the president, but the reception of the president means the recep- 
tion given to the president. 

Direction. — Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the- 
following expressions : — 

A mother's love, the love of a mother ; a father's care, the care of 
a father ; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend. 

Caution. — Often ambiguity may be prevented by 
changing the assumed subject of a participle from a 
nominative or an objective to a possessive. 

Direction. — Correct these errors: — 

1. The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

Correction. — This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the 



246 Modifications of the Parts of Speech* 



writer is not doubted because he is a scholar, or that the writer's 
scholarship is not doubted. It should be, The writer's being* a 
scholar is not doubted, or That the writer is a scholar is not doubted. 

2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 3. No one ever 
heard of that man running for office. 4. Brown being a politician 
prevented his election. 5. I do not doubt him being sincere. 6. 
Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. 



LESSON 124. 

NUMBER AND CASE FORMS. 

Declension. 

DEFINITION. — Declension is the arrangement of the eases 
of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers. 

Direction. — Learn the following declensions : — 
Declension of Nouns. 

LADY. BOY. MAN. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

JSfom. lady, ladies, boy, boys, man, men, 

Pos. lady's, ladies', boy's, boys', man's, men's, 

Obf. lady ; ladies. boy ; boys. man ; men. 

* The participle may be modified not only, as here, by a noun in the possessive but 
by the articles a and the—as said in Lesson 37. Whether it be the imposing a tax or 
the issuing a paper currency.— Bagehot. Not a making war on them, not a leaving 
them out of mind, but the putting a new construction upon them, the taking them 
from under the old conventional point of view.— Matthew Arnold. Poltroonery is the 
acknowledging an infirmity to be incurable. — Emerson. The giving away a man's 
money.— Burke. It is not the finding of a thing but the making something out of it, 
after it is found, that is of consequence.— Lowell. 

As seen in this last quotation, the participle may be followed by a preposition and 
so become a pure noun (Lesson 38). 



Number and Case Forms, 
Declension of Pronouns. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



247 



FIRST PERSON. 


SECOND PERSON — 


SECOND PERSON — 




common 


form. 


old form. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular, 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Nom. I, we,* 


you, 


you, 


thou, ye % or you, 


^ ( my or our or 
Pos. \ : , 

( mme,f ours, 


your or 


your or 


thy or your or 


yours, 


yours, 


thine, yours, 


Obj. me ; us. 


you ; 


you. 


thee ; you. 



* Strictly speaking, we can hardly be the plural of /, says Professor Sweet, for I 
does not admit of plurality. We means / and you, I and he, I and she, or / and 
they, etc. 

+ The forms mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used only when the name 
of the thing possessed is omitted ; as, Yours is old, mine is new = Your book is old, 
etc. Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; 
as, thine enemy, mine honor. 

The expression a friend of mine presents a peculiar construction. The explanation 
generally given is, that of is partitive, and that the expression is equivalent to one 
friend of my friends. 

It is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thing is 
possessed ; but such expressions as This heart of mine, That temper of yours are 
good, idiomatic English. This naughty world of ours.— Byron. This moral life of 
mine.— Sheridan Knowles. Dim are those heads of theirs.— Carlyle. 

Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these possess- 
ives ; as, This temper of yours (your possessing) ; others say that of simply marks 
identity, as does of in city of (= viz.) New York (see Lesson 34). They would make 
the expression = This temper, your temper. 

The s in ours, yours, hers, and theirs is the s of his and its extended by analogy to 
our, your, her, and their, forms already possessive. Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are 
consequently double possessives. 

% Ye is used in Chaucer and in the King James version of the Bible exclusively in 
the nominative, as was its original ge in the Saxon. Shakespeare uses you in the nom- 
inative. You (the Saxon dative eow) has now taken the place of ye, and is both 
nominative and objective. 



248 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



THIRD PERSON — Mas. 


third person — Fem. 


THIRD PERSON — Neut 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


JVom. he, 


they, 


she, they, 


it, 


they, 




their or 


her or their or 


its,* 


their or 


Pos. his, 


theirs, 


hers, theirs, 


theirs, 


Obj. him ; 


them. 


her ; them. 


it; 


thenio 




COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. and 


Nom. and 


Nom. and Nom. and 


Nom. and 


Nom. and 


Obj. 


Obj. 


Obj. Obj. 


Obj. 


Obj. 


myself f or i 
ourself ; ) 


ourselves. 


thyself or \ , 

J _, J. yourselves 
yourself ; j 


himself ; 
herself ; 
itself ; 


\ them- 
f selveSo 


Remark. - 


—The poss 


essive of these pronoum 


3 is wantin 


ff- 



Ourself and we are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their 
individuality, and give authority to what they say. 



* The possessive its is our only personal pronoun form not found in Saxon. His, 
the possessive of the masculine he, was there the possessive (genitive) of the neuter hit 
also — our it. But it came to be thought improper to employ his to denote inanimate 
things as well as animate. The literature of the 16th and 17th centuries shows a grow- 
ing sense of this impropriety, and abounds with of it, thereof, her, it, the, and it own 
in place of his as the possessive of it. The first appearance of the new coinage its is 
placed in 1598. Long after its introduction many looked askance at its, because of the 
grammatical blunder it contains— the t in its being a nominative neuter ending, and 
the s a possessive ending. But no one thinks now of shunning what was then 
regarded as a grammatical monstrosity. 

+ The compound personal pronouns are used (1) for emphasis ; as, I myself saw it ; 
and (2) as reflexives, to turn the action of the verb back upon the actor ; as, He found 
himself deserted by his friends. They are not the only words used in this last rela- 
tion ; where no obscurity would arise, we may use the simple personal pronouns 
instead. And millions in those solitudes . . . have laid them down in their last 
sleep. — Bryant. My uncle stopped a minute to look about him.— Dickens. 

The compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects. 



Number and Case Forms. 24S 

Relative Pronouns. 

Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu* 
Nom. who, which, that, what,. 

Fos. whose, whose, -, r 

Obj. whom. which. that. what. 

Remark. — From the composition of which — hwd-lic, or hwmt-lic =- 
who-like, or what-UJce, it is evident that whose is not formed from 
which. It is, in fact, the possessive of what transferred to which. 

Much has been said against this whose, but it is in general use- 
Those who regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid 
this form of the pronoun. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what are 
declined like the relatives who, which, and what. 

Compound Relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Flural. Singular and Plural. 

Nom. whoever, whosoever, 

Pos. whosever, whosesoever, 

Qbj. whomever. whomsoever. 

Whichever, whichsoever, ivhatever, and 'whatsoever do 
not change their form. 

Adjective Pronouns. 

This and that with their plurals, these and those, have 
no possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and 
the objective. One and other are declined like nouns; 
and another, declined like other in the singular, has no 
plural. Either, neither, former, and latter sometimes 
take the apostrophe and s ('■$) in the singular. Each> 



250 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



either, and neither are always singular; loth is always 
plural ; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, some, and 
such are either singular or plural.* 

* On the pages immediately preceding Lesson 1, we said that usage, as deter- 
mined by the majority of the best writers and speakers of the generation, is the only 
authority in language ; and we there explained how we are able to appeal to usage as 
we all along have done. In treating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it 
again. In the first twelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions. Only the 
eecond of these alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by many grammari- 
ans"; they utterly condemn the first. On the warrant of usage we say that both expres- 
sions are correct. 

1. We may use each other with more than two ; we may use one another in such 
a case. We may say, " Several able men were in correspondence with each other" or 
" with one another" 

2. We may use one another with only two ; we may use each other in such a case. 
We may say, " The two countries agreed to stand by one another," or " by each other." 

3. We may use all, both, and whole with a preposition and a noun following ; 
we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun. We may say, " All of the 
people" " Both of the trees" " The whole of the farm," or " All the people," " Both 
trees," " The whole farm." 

4. We may use the pronouns either and neither, as we do the conjunctions either 
and neither, with more than two ; we may use any one and none in such cases. We 
may say, " Here are three candidates ; you may vote for either or for neither of them," 
or "for any one or for none of them." 

5. We may use he or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one ; we may 
repeat the one in such a case. We may say, "The home one must quit, yet taking 
much of its life along with him," or " along with one." 

6. We may use such before an adjective and its noun ; we may use so with the 
adjective in such a case. We may say, " Such a strong argument," " Such admirable 
talent," or "So strong an argument," "Talent so admirable." 

7. We may use the plural ones ; we may use the noun for which ones stands. We 
may say, " You have red roses, I have white ones," or "white roses." 

8. We may apply the other two to those that remain when one of three things 
has been taken from the rest ; we may use the two others in such a case. We may say, 
" One of them kept his ground, the other two ran away," or " the two others ran away." 

9. We may use a before a noun in the singular and or two after it ; we may use one 



Case Forms— Pronouns. 251 



Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and 
are not declined. Such expressions as " the wretched' s 
only plea " and "the wicked's den" are exceptional. 



LESSON 12 5. 

CASE FORMS-PRONOUNS. 

The pronouns I, thou, he, she, and who are the only 
words in the language that have each three different case 
forms. 

Direction. — Study the Declensions, and correct these errors ;— 
Our's, your's, hi's, ker's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn. 

or two before the noun in the plural. We may say, " I will go in a day or two" or " in. 
one or two days." \ 

10. We may use either in the sense of each ; we may use each instead. We may 
Bay, " He wrested the land on either side of the Seine," or " on each side of the Seine." 

11. We may insert a noun, or a noun and other words, between other and than ; 
we may place the than immediately after other. We may say, " We must look for 
some other reasons for it than those suggested," or "for some reasons for it other 
than those suggested." 

12. We may use none in the plural ; we may use none in the singular. We may say, 
*' None hear thy voice," or " None hears thy voice." 

The paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but no really 
alternative expressions. 

13. Usage is overwhelmingly in favor of any one else's, no one else's, some- 
body else's, nobody else's, instead of any one^s else, etc. There is scarcely any 
authority for placing the ('§) upon one or body. " Written by Dickens for his own 
or any one else^s children." This form is common and convenient. We are advised 
to shun it, but we need not. 

14. Usage is also decidedly in favor of first two, last three, etc., instead of two 
first, three last, etc. 



252 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Construction of Case Forms— Pronouns, 
Caution. — I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who 
are nominative forms, and must not be used in the ob- 
jective case. Me, us, thee, him, her,* them, and 
whom are objective forms, and must not be used in 
the nominative case. 

Remark. — The eight nominative forms and the seven objective 
forms here given are the only distinctive nominative and objective 
forms in the language. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars 
to guide in the use of the nominative and the objective case apply, 
practically, only to these fifteen words. 

Direction. — Study carefully the Definitions and principles given 
tinder the head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, 
giving your reasons in every instance: — 

1. It is not me f you are in love with. 2. She was neither better 
bred nor wiser than you or me.f 3. Who f servest thou under ? 4. It 

<* Her is also a possessive. 

+ Dr. Latham defends It is me, but condemns It is him and It is her. Dean Alford 
Tegards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that thee and me are 
correct in, " The nations not so blest as thee,'''' " Such weak minister as me may the 
oppressor bruise. 1 ' Professor Bain justifies If I ivere him, It was her, He is better 
than me, and even defends the use of who as an objective form by quoting from 
Shakespeare, " Who servest thou under ? " and from Steele, " Wlio should I meet ?" 

They justify such expressions as It is me from the analogy of the French c'est moi, 
and on the ground that they are " more frequently heard than the prescribed form.'" 
But such analogy would justify It are them (ce sont eux) ; and, if the argument from 
the speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for " Her ain't 
a calling we; us don't belong to she." A course of leading will satisfy one that 
the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such expressions 
as It is me, and that these are almost, if not quite, unknown in American literature. 
No one has so freed himself from the influence of early associations that in a carelesp 



Case Forms— Pronouns. 253 



was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference. 
6. Him and me are of the same age. 7. Them that study grammar 
talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her ; she is older than 
me by ten years. 9. He was angry, and me too. 10. Who will go ? 
Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. 12. 
"Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him 
being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy us ! sur- 
rounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh 
promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often 
speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 18. Between you 
and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Who should I meet 
the other day but my old friend ? 20. Who did he refer to, he or I ? 
21. Who did he choose ? Did he choose you and I ? 22. He that is 
idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever you 
may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They that 
are diligent I will reward. 26. Scotland and thee did in each other 
live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as 
thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he. 30. Who 
did you suppose it to be ? 31. Whom did you suppose it was ? 32. I 
took that tall man to be he. 33. I thought that tall man was him. 

moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A violation of 
every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are to be erected 
into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitual, usage of a majority of the 
best writers and speakers the grammarian should bow without question ; but not to 
the accidental slips of even the greatest writers, or to the common usage of the unre- 
flecting and the uncultivated. 

Although than is not a preposition, it is sometimes followed by whom, as in the 
familiar passage from Milton : "Beelzebub . . . than tvhom, Satan except, none 
higher sat." Than whom is an irregularity justified only on the basis of good usage. 
Wliom here may be parsed as an objective case form used idiomatically in place 
of who. 



254 Modifications of the Parts of Speech* 



LESSON 12 6. 

CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORMS. 

MISCELLANEOUS — REVIEW. 

Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons: — 
1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur 
during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 3. I con- 
sulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state 
was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George 
nor Fanny's books. 6. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a 
noble one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. 
8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. 

Explanation. — If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, 
this would be correct ; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. 

9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. 10. 
For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's 
sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was 
that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14. It being 
difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man swear- 
ing ? 16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 17. He 
thought it was us. 18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object 
of scorn, you or me. 19. I shall not learn my duty from such as thee. 
20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B. 21. A 
\ady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. 22. Ask some- 
body's else opinion. 23. Let him be whom he may. 24. I am sure it 
could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be they. 26. It is 
not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and I try it. 28. All 
enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 29. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 
30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the "iEneid." 31. He asked help of 
men whom he knew could not help him. 



General Review. 



255 



GENERAL REVIEW. 

T© the Teacher.— These schemes and questions under the head of General Review 
are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar. 

The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for out- 
lines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole lesson. 

Scheme for the Noun, 

{The numbers refer to Lessons.) 

Subject (4, 8). 

Object Complement (28). 

Attribute Complement (29, 30). 

Objective Complement (31). 

Adjective Modifier (33). 

Adverb Modifier (35). 

Principal word in Prep. Phrase ft 7). 

Independent (44). 



NOUN. 



Uses. 



Classes. 



Common (85). 

(Abstract and Collective.) 

Proper (85). 



Modifications. 



Number. 



Gender. 



Person. 



Case. 



j Singular (112-116). 
( Plural (112-116). 

( Masculine (117, 118). 
\ Feminine (117, 118). 
( Neuter (117, 118). 

( First (119). 
\ Second (119). 
( Third (119). 

( Nominative (119). 

\ Possessive (119, 122, 123). 

( Objective (119). 



r Questions on the Noun. 

1. Define the noun and its classes. — Lesson 85. 

2. Name and define the modifications of the noun. — Lessons 112, 
117, 119. 

3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and 
cases.— Lessons 112, 117, 119. 



256 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural. — 
Lessons 112, 113, 114. 

5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the gen- 
ders. — Lesson 117. 

6. How is the possessive case formed ? — Lesson 122. 

7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of 
the possessive forms. — Lesson 123. 

Scheme for the Pronoun. 

Uses. — Same as those of the Noun. 



PRONOUN. 



f Personal (85, 86, 87). 
Classes J Relative (85, 86, 87). 

i Interrogative (85). 



t Adjective (85, 87). 

Modifications. — Same as those of the Noun (112, 
117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 142). 

Questions on the Pronoun. 

1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists. — Lesson 85. 

2. Decline the several pronouns. — Lesson 124. 

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the 
different pronouns. — Lessons 86, 87. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the 
number forms, the gender forms, and the case forms.— Lessons 118, 
125, 142. 



LESSON 12 7. 

COMPARISON. 

Introductory Hints. — That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, 
hut this one is the sweetest. The adjective sweet, expressing a quality 
of the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding er and est. 

Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by 
form, or inflection. This modification is called Comparison, because 



Comparison. 257 



it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to 
some quality common to them all, but possessed by them in different 
degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple qual= 
ity, as sweet, is of the Positive Degree ; that which expresses the 
quality in a greater or a less degree, as sweeter, less sweet, is of the 
Comparative Degree ; and that which expresses the quality in the 
greatest or the least degree, as sweetest, least sweet, is of the Superla= 
tive Degree. 

But even the positive implies a comparison ; we should not say, 
This apple is sweet, unless this particular fruit had more of the qual= 
ity than ordinary apples possess. 

Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative 
degrees always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This 
apple is sweeter than that, or, This apple is the sweetest of the three, 
we do not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only 
that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those 
compared. 

The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may 
be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We 
can say very, exceedingly, rather, or somewhat sweet ; far, still, or 
much sweeter ; by far or much the sweetest. 

Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. 

Adjectives have one modification ; viz., Comparison.* 

DEFINITIONS. 

Comparison is a modification of the adjective (or the 
adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality f in the 
things compared. 

The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality. 

* Two adjectives, this and that, have number forms— this, these ; that, those. In 
Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender, number, and case, 
t Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison 
17 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less 
degree of the quality. 

The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least 
degree of the quality. 

KULE. — Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to 
the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to 
form the superlative. 

KULES FOE SPELLING. 

EULE I. — Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with 
a vowel ; as, fine, finer ; love, loving. 

Exceptions. — The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix 
begins with a or o ; as, peaceable, changeable ; (2) after o ; as, hoeing ; 
and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word ; as, 
singeing, dyeing. 

EULE II.— IT after a consonant becomes i before a suffix 
not beginning with i; as, witty, wittier; dry, dried. 

Exceptions. — Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the 
plural of proper nouns ; as, lady's, the Marys, .the Henrys. 

EULE III. — In monosyllables and words accented on the 
last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles 
before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, hot, hotter; begin, 



Exceptions. — X, Tc, and v are never doubled, and gas has gases in 
the plural. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally 
compared by prefixing more and most. This method is 
often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes 
with those of one. 



Comparison. 259 



Remark. — More beautiful, most beautiful, etc. can hardly be 
called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most 
have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as sepa- 
rate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as 
when the inflections er and est are added. 

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less 
and least* ; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. 

Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot 
be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different 
degrees. 

Direction. — From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be 
compared, and compare those that remain : — 

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. 

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, hand- 
some, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, 
witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, 
lunar, superior. 

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more 
easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be 
preferred. 

* This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman- 
French. But note how the adverb is compared. The Saxon superlative ending st is 
in most and least ; and the Saxon comparative ending s, unchanged to r, is the last 
letter in less— changed to r, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the r in 
more. 

When it was forgotten that less is a comparative, er was added, and we have the 
double comparative lesser— in use to-day. 

After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods 
were often used with the same adjective ; and, for a time, double comparatives and 
•double superlatives were common ; as, worser, most boldest. 

In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times. 



260 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — Correct the following : — 

Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. 

Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est, and 
some by prefixing more and most. 

Direction. — Compare the following : — 

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. 

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their com- 
parison. 

Direction. — Learn to compare the following adjectives and ad- 
verbs : — 

Adjectives Irregularly Compared. 



Pos. 

(Aft),* 

Bad, 
Evil 
111, 

Far, 

Fore, 

(Forth), 

Good, 

Hind, 

(In), 
Late, 



Comp 
after, 



Superlative. 
{ af tmost or 
I aftermost. 



worse, worst, 

farther, j 

former, 

further, 



better, 
hinder, 

inner, 

( later or j 
( latter, ( 



farthest or 

farthermost. 
j foremost or 
(first. 

j furthest or 
I furthermost. 

best. 

( hindmost or 
\ hindermost. 
J inmost or 

innermost. 

latest or 

last. 



Pos. 
Little, f j 

Many or 
Much, 

Near, 
Old, 

(Out), j 

Under, 

(UP), 
Top, 



Comp. 
less or 
lesser, 

{■ more, 

nearer, 

older or 
elder, 

outer or 
utter, 



upper, 



least. 

most. 

' nearest or 

next. 

oldest or 

eldest, 
'outmost or 

outermost ;. 

utmost or 

uttermost. 

undermost.. 
( upmost or 
( uppermost. 

topmost. 



* The words inclosed in curves are adverbs— the adjectives following having no • 
positive form. 

t For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, , 
smaller and smallest are substituted ; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy. 



Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 261 





Adverbs Irregularly C 


ompared. 




Pos. 


Comp. Superlative. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


Superlative. 


Badly, l 
111, ) 


worse, worst. 


Little, 
Much, 


less, 
more, 


least, 
most. 


Far, 


farther, farthest. 


Well, 


better, 


best. 


Forth, 


further, furthest. 









To the Teacher.— We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. 
A similar form may be used for adverbs. 

Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Lessons 
12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65. 

Model for Written Parsing. — All the dewy glades are still. 



CLASSIFICATION. 


MODIFICATION. 


SYNTAX. 


Adjectives. 


Kind. 


Deg. of Comp. 




All 


D.ef. 





Modifer of glades. 


the 


it 





U t( c< 


dewy 


Des. 


Pos. 


U It (C 


Btill 


" 


" 


Completes are and modifies glades. 



LESSON 12 8. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND 
SUPERLATIVES. 

Caution. — In stating a comparison avoid comparing a 
thing with itself.* 

Remark. — The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of 
things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of 
the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally 
followed by fhan.\ 

* A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different 
conditions ; as, The star is brighter to-night ; The grass is greener to-day. 

+ The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may 
be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together ; 
as, He is no better than other men ; It contains more than all the others combined. 



262 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Direction. — Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these 
errors : — 

1. London is larger than any city in Europe. 

Correction. — The second term of comparison, any city in Europe, 
includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than 
itself. It should be, London is larger than any other city in 
Europe, or, London is the largest city in Europe. 

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. 
I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no 
metal so useful as iron. 

(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is 
employed.) 

5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above 
all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. 

Caution. — In using the superlative degree be careful 
to make the latter term of the comparison, o,r the term 
introduced by of, include the former. 

Remarks. — The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of 
things) as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the 
quality than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed 
by of. 

Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two 
things ; as, This is the best of the two. But in such cases usage 
largely favors the comparative ; as, This is the better of the two. 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Remarks, and correct 
these errors: — 
1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. 
Correction. — Of (= belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging 



Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 263 



to a group of kings, and other excludes him from this group — a con- 
tradiction in terms. It should be, Solomon was the wisest of Hebrew 
kings, or Solomon was wiser than any other Hebrew king. 

2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satis- 
factory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inex- 
cusable. 4. He was the most active of all his companions. 

(He was not one of his own companions.) 

5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 6. John 
is the oldest of any boy in his class. 

Caution. — Avoid double comparatives and double 
superlatives, and the comparison of adjectives whose 
meaning will not admit of different degrees.* 

Direction. — Correct these errors: — 

1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. 2. He took the 
longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 3. Draw that line more 
perpendicular. 

Correction. — Draw that line perpendicular, or more nearly perpen- 
dicular. 

4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil awaits 
us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 7. That 
form of expression is more preferable. 

Caution. — When an adjective denoting one, or an adjec- 

* Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are 
used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are compared by good writers ; as, 
My chief est entertainment.— Sheridan. The chief est prize.— Byron. Divinest Melan- 
choly.— Milton. Extremest hell.— Whittier. Most perfect harmony.— Longfellow. 
Less perfect imitations.— MacaiUay. The extension of these exceptional forms should 
not be encouraged. 



264 ftlodifications of the Parts of Speech. 



tive denoting more than one, is joined to a noun, the 
adjective and the noun must agree in number. 

Remark. — A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to 
a singular noun to form a compound adjective ; as, a ten-foot pole (not 
a ten-feet pole), a three-cent stamp. 

Direction. — Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these 
errors : — 

1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is fif- 
teen foot square ; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer 
exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These 
sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the 
rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that 
tongs. 

Miscellaneous. 

1. He was more active than any other of his companions. 

Correction. — As he is not one of his companions, other is unneces- 
sary. 

2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that 
preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is the 
prettier. 

(This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the 
second Remark in this Lesson.) 

4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was will- 
ing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any of 
the ancient kings. 7. I don't like those sort of people. 8. I have the 
most entire confidence in him. 9. This is the more preferable form. 
10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North 
America? 11. He writes better than any boy in his class. 



General Review. 



GENERAL REVIEW. 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. 
Scheme for the Adjective. 
{The numbers refer to Lessons.) 



ADJECTIVE. 



Uses. 



Classes. 



( Modifier (12). 

■< Attribute Complement (29, 30). 

( Objective Complement (31). 

j Descriptive (89-91). 
( Definitive (89-91). 



Pos. Deg. 
Modification. — Comparison. -1 Comp. " y 127, 

Sup. " 



Questions on the Adjective. 

1. Define the adjective and its classes. — Lesson 89. 

2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison. — Lesson 127. 

3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods 
of comparison.— Lesson 127. 

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad- 
jectives. — Lessons 90, 91. 

5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of com- 
parative and superlative forms. — Lesson 128. 



ADVERB. 



Scheme for the Adverb. 



Classes. 



Time. 
Place. 

Degree. 
Manner, 
Cause. 



y 92-94. 



(Pos. Deg. 
Modification. — Comparison. •] Comp. " 5-127, 128. 
( Sup. " 



266 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Questions on the Adverb. 

1 Define the adverb and its classes. — Lesson 92. 

2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of com- 
parison. — Lesson 127. 

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad- 
verbs, — Lesson 93. 



LESSON 12 9. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 

VOICE. 

Introductory Hints. — He picked a rose. A rose was picked by 
him. The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, picked, 
shows that the subject names the actor ; the second verb, was picked, 
shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different 
forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called Voice. 
The first form is in the Active Voice ; the second is in the Passive 
Voice. 

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made 
prominent ; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made 
prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is un- 
known, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name the agent ; 
as, The ship was wrecked ; Money is coined. 



DEFINITIONS. 
Voice is that modification of the transitive verb which shows 
whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted 
upon. 

The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor. 
The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing 
acted upon. 



Composition— Voice. 267 



The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into 
an asserting word (some form of the verb be) and an attri- 
bute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). 

An expression consisting of an asserting word followed 
by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjec- 
tively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. 

Examples. — The coat was sometimes worn by Joseph {was worn — 
passive voice). The coat was badly worn {was — incomplete predicate, 
worn — adjective complement). 

Remark. — To test the passive voice note whether the one named 
by the subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed 
by by before the name of the agent without changing the sense. 

Direction. — Tell which of the following completed predicates may 
be treated as single verbs, and which should not be so treated : — 

1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in 
a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite ? 4. Dinner was soon prepared. 
5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 
7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is 
situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am 
obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money 
are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined 
by years. 

Direction. — Name all fhs transitive verbs in Lesson 78, and give 
their voice. 

LESSON 130. 

COMPOSITION-VOICE. 

The object complement of a verb in the active voice 
becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the 
passive voice. 



268 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Example. — The Danes invaded England = England was invaded 
by the Danes. 

Remark. — You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is 
made prominent ; in the second sentence the receiver. 

Direction. — In each of these sentences change the voice of the 
transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and 
note the other changes that occur: — 

1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and 
winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they intro- 
duced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the 
Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress 
was chosen, not for ? fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as 
would wear well. 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in 
many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are 
dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed — in the prevailing 
fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood 
circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman 
legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence 
had struck them dumb. 

Remark. — Notice that the objective complement becomes the 
attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to 
the passive voice. 

9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had 
nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my 
soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching. 

(Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.) 

13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead 
on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man. 

(Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.) 



Composition— Voice. 269 



16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Every- 
body acknowledged him to be a genius. 

The indirect, or dative, object is sometimes made the 
subject of a verb in the passive voice,, while the object 
complement is retained after the verb.* 

Example. — The porter refused him admittance = He was refused 
admittance by the porter. 

Direction. — Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these 
sentences, and note the other changes that occur: — 

18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was 
offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question 
V^sterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. 

Explanation. — Here the infinitive phrase is the object comple- 
ment, and (to) me is used adverbially. To leave the room = that I 
should leave the room. 

22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 
24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. 

Direction. — Change the following transitive verbs to the passive 
form, using first the regular and then the idiomatic construc- 
tion : — 

* Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation of 
the general analogies, or laws, of language ; but that it is an idiom of our language, 
established by good usage, is beyond controversy. 

Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there is difference of 
opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a " retained object, 1 ' and 
some say that it is a noun without grammatical construction. In "I offered him 
money," him represents the one to whom the act was directed, and money names the 
thing directly acted upon. In "He was offered money, 1 ' the relation of the act to the 
person and to the thing is not changed ; money still names the thing directly acted 
upon. 



270 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Model. — He promised me a present = A present was promised me 
(regular) = I was promised a present (idiomatic). 

25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 
26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. 

An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by 
the aid of a preposition. 

Example. — All his friends laughed at him = He was laughed at 
(ridiculed) by all his friends. 

Remark. — Was laughed at may be treated as one verb. Some 
grammarians, however, would call at an adverb. The intransitive 
verb and preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in 
the passive voice. 

Direction. — Change the voice of the following verbs : — 

27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker 
did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, 
and did not refer to it afterward. 

Remark. — The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic 
construction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is fol- 
lowed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in 
the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining 
the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning ; as, They 
took care of it, It was taken care of. 

Direction. — Put the following sentences into several different 
forms, and determine which is the best : — 

30. His original purpose was lost sight of * (forgotten). 31. Such 

* Some would parse of as an adverb relating to was lost, and sight as a noun used 
adverbially to modify was lost ; others would treat sight as an object [complement] of 
was lost ; others would call was lost sight of a compound verb ; and others, believing 
that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze the 
expression as if arranged thus : Sight of his original purpose was lost. 



Modifications of the Verb— Continued. 271 



talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his 
friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as 
insipid. 

LESSON 131. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 

MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. 

Introductory Hints. — James walks. Here the walking is asserted 
as an actual fact. James may walk. Here the walking is asserted not 
as an actual, but as a possible, fact. If James walk out, lie will im- 
prove. Here the walking is asserted only as thought of, without 
regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact. 
James, walk out. Here the walking is not asserted as a fact, but 
as a command — James is ordered to make it a fact. These different 
uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call 
Mode. The first verb is in the Indicative Mode ; the second in 
the Potential Mode; the third in the Subjunctive Mode; the 
fourth in the Imperative Mode. 

For the two forms of the verb called the Participle and the In- 
finitive, see Lessons 37 and 40. 

/ walk. I walked. I shall walk. In these three sentences the man- 
ner of asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the 
action takes place is different. Walk asserts the action as going on 
in present time, and, as Tense means time, is in the Present Tense. 
Walked asserts the action as past, and is in the Past Tense. Shall 
walk asserts the action as future, and is in the Future Tense. 

I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall 
have walked out by to-morrow. Have walked asserts the action as 
completed at the present, and is in the Present Perfect Tense. 
Had walked asserts the action as completed in the past, and is in the 



272 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Past Perfect Tense. Shall have walked asserts action to be com- 
pleted in the future- and is in the Future Perfect Tense. 

I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk. In the second 
sentence walk is changed by adding est ; in the third sentence, by 
adding s. Verbs are said to agree in Person and Number with their 
subjects. But this agreement is not generally marked by a change 
in the form of the verb. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Mode is that modification of the verb which denotes the 
manner of asserting the action or being. 

The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact.* 

The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, 
or necessity of acting or being. 

The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere 
condition, supposition, or wish. 

The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- 
mand or an entreaty. 



The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action 
or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything. 

The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature 
of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being 
as assumed. 

The Present Participle denotes action or being as continu- 
ing at the time indicated by the predicate. 

* In " Are you going ? " or " You are going ? " a fact is referred to the hearer for his 
admission or denial. In "Who did it ?" the fact that some person did it is asserted, 
and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will be seen that the Indicative 
Mode may be used in asking a question. 



Forms of the Verb. 273 



The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or 
completed at the time indicated by the predicate. 

The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as 
completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. 



Tense is that modification of the yerb which expresses the 
time of the action or being. 

The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. 

The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. 

The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as 
completed at the present time. 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- 
pleted at some past time. 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to b£ 
completed at some future time. 



Number and Person of a yerb are those modifications that 
show its agreement with the number and person of its subject. 



LESSON 132. 

FORMS OF THE VERB. 

CONJUGATION. 

DEFINITIONS. 
Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of 
the yerb. 

Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one 
number and person in all the modes and tenses. 

Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of 
other yerbs. 

18 



274 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The auxiliaries are do, did, have, had, shall, should, will, 
would, may, might, can, could, must, and be (with all its 
variations, see Lesson 135). 

The Principal Parts of a verb, or those from which the 
other parts are derived, are the present indicative or the pres- 
ent infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle. 

List of Irregular Verbs.* 

To the Teacher.— It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in re- 
citing these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper 
use of the past tense and the past participle, e. g., I began yesterday ; He has begun to 
do better. In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing 
forms which they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what ha& 
been faulty in their use of other forms. 

Remarks. — Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form 
are called Redundant. 

* Grammarians have classed verbs on the basis of their form or history as Strong 
(or Old) and Weak (or New). 

Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present without 
adding anything ; weak verbs form their past tense by adding ed, d, or t. 

Some weak verbs change the vowel of the present ; as, tell, told ; teach, taught. 
These are weak because they add d or t. 

Some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything ; as, 
feed, fed ; lead, led ; and some have the present and the past alike ; as, set, set ; rid, 
rid. They have dropped the past tense ending. 

The past participle of all strong verbs once ended in en or n, but in many verbs this 
ending is now lost. 

Since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding ed, we call 
such Regular, and all others Irregular. Our irregular verbs include all strong verbs and 
those that may be called " irregular weak " verbs. 

Of the ed added to form the past tense of regular verbs, d is what remains of did ; 
we-did-love, for instance, being written love-did-we. This derivation of d in ed is 
questioned. The d of the participle is not from did but is from an old participle suffix. 
The e in the ed of both these forms is the old connecting vowel. 



Forms of the Verb. 



275 



Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as can and may, are 
called Defective. 

The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may 
always be formed from the present tense by adding ing. 

In adding ing and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see 
Lesson 127) should be observed. 

The forms below in Italics are regular ; and those in smaller type 
are obsolete, and need not be committed to memory. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Awake, 


awoke, 
awaked, 


awaked. 


Break, 


broke, 
brake, 


broken. 


Be or am, 


was, 


been. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bear, 


bore, 


born, 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


{bringforth) 


bare, 


borne. 


Build, 


built, 


built. 


Bear, 


bore, 


borne. 


Burn, 


burnt, 


burnt, 


{carry) 


bare, 




burned, 


burned. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, 

beat. 

begun. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Begin, 


began, 


Buy, 
Can,* 


bought, 
could, 


bought. 


Bend, 


bent, 
tended, 


bent, 
bended. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 




bereft, 


bereft, 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, 


bereaved. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chidden, 

chid. 

chosen. 


Beseech, 


besought, besought, 
bet, bet, 
betted, bettpd. 


Choose, 


chose, 


Bet, 


Cleave, 


cleaved, 


cleaved. 








{adhere) 


clave, 




Bid, 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid. 


Cleave, 


cleft, 


cleft, 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


{split) 


clove, 


cloven, 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 




clave, 


cleaved. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Blend, 


blent, 
blended, 


blent, 
blended. 


Clothe, 


clad, 
clothed, 


clad, 
clothed. 


Bless, 


blest, 


blest, 


(Be) Come, 


came, 


come. 


blessed, 


blessed. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 



* Can, may, shall, will, must, and aught were originally past forms. This accounts 
for their having no change in the third person. 



276 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Present 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par, 


Creep, 
Crow, 

Cut, 


crept, 

crew, 

crowed, 

cut, 


crept. 

crowed. 

cut. 


Gild, 
Gird, 


gilt, 
gilded, 

girt, 
girded, 


gilt, 
gilded. 

girt, 
girded. 


Dare, 

(venture) 


durst, 
dared, 


dared. 


(For) Give, gave, 
Go, went,f 


given, 
gone. 


Deal, 
Big, 


dealt, 

dug, 
digged, 


dealt. 

dug, 
digged. 


(En)Grav 
Grind, 


q, graved, 
ground, 


graved, 
graven. 

ground. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Draw, 
Dream, 


drew, 

dreamt, 

dreamed, 


drawn. 

dreamt, 

dreamed. 


Hang, 
Have, 


hung, 
hanged, 

had, 


hung, 
hanged. % 

had. 


Dress, 
Drink, 


drest, 
dressed, 

drank, 


drest, 
dressed. 

drunk. 


Hear, 
Heave, 


heard, 

hove, 

heaved, 


heard. 

hove,§ 
heaved. 


Drive, 
Dwell, 


drove, 

dwelt, 
dwelled, 


driven. 

dwelt, 
dwelled. 


Hew, 
Hide, 


hewed, 
hid, 


hewed, 
hewn, 
hidden, hid. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


(Be) Fall, 

Feed, 

Feel, 


fell, 
fed, 
felt, 


fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 


(Be) Hold, 
Hurt, 


held, 
hurt, 


held, 
ho] den. 

hurt. 


Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 


fought, 
found, - 
fled, 


fought, 
found, 
fled. 


Keep, 
Kneel, 


kept, 

knelt, 
kneeled, 


kept. 

knelt, 
kneeled. 


Fling, 
Fly, 


flung, 
flew, 


flung, 
flown. 


Knit, 


knit, 
knitted, 


knit, 
knitted. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Forbear, 
Freeze, 

(For) Get, 


forbore, 
froze, 

got, 


forborne, 
frozen. 

got, 
gotten.* 


Lade, 

(load) 

Lav, 
Lead, 


laded, 

laid, 
led, 


laded, 
laden. 

laid, 
led. 



* Gotten is obsolescent except in forgotten. 
t Went is the past of wend, to go. 
X Hang, to execute by hanging, is regular. 
§ Hove is used in sea language. 



List of Irregular Verbs— Continued. 



277 



LESSON 133 



LIS 

Present. 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Learn, 

Leave, 
Lend, 
Let, 
Lie, 



Light, 

Lose, 

Make, 

May, 

Mean, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Must, 

Ought, 

Pay, 

Pen, 

{inclose) 



ST OF 


IRREGULAR 


VERBS 


-CONTINUED. 


Past, 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


leant, 


leant, 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


leaned, 


leaned. 


Quit, 


quit, 


quit, 


leapt, 


leapt, 


quitted, 


quitted. 


leaped, 


leaped. 


? 


quoth, f 


. 


learnt, 


learnt, 


Rap, 


rapt, 


rapt, 


learned, 


learned. 


rapped, 


rapped. 


left, 


left. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


lent, 


lent. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


let, 


let. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


lay, 


lain. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


lighted, 


lighted, 


Ring, 


rang, 
rung, 


rung. 


lit, 


lit.* 


(A) Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


lost, 


lost. 






• 


made, 


made. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived. 


might, 


-. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


meant, 


meant. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, 


met, 


met. 






sawn. 


mowed, 


mowed, 


Say, 


said. 


said. 


mown. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


> 


. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


> 


. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed, 


paid, 


paid. 


sod, 


sodden. 


pent, 


pent, 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


penned, 


penned. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 



* Lighted is preferred to lit. 

t Quoth, now nearly obsolete, is used only in the first and the third person of the 
past tense. Quoth I = said I. Other forms nearly obsolete are sometimes met in 
literature ; as, "Methinks I scent the morning air " ; " Woe worth the day." Methinks 
(A. S. thincan, to seem, not thencan, to think) = seems to me. In the sentence above, 
I scent the morning air is the subject, thinks is the predicate, and me is a " dative," 
or a pronoun used adverbially. Woe worth (A. S. weorthan, to be or become) the 
day = Woe be to the day, or Let woe be to the day, or May woe be to the day. 



278 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Present. 


Past 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


(Be) Set, 


set, 


set. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Spell, 


spelt, 


spelt, 


Shall, 


should, 


. 


spelled, 


spelled. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 






shapen. 


Spill, 
Spin, 


spilt, 


spilt, 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, 
shaven. 


spilled, 
spun, 


spilled. 
spun. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, 




span, 




shore, 


shorn. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spit, 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 




spat, 


spitten. 


Shine, 


shone, 


shone. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Shoe, 
Shoot, 


shod, 
shot, 


shod, 
shot. 
shown, 
showed. 


Spoil, 
Spread, 


spoilt, 
spoiled, 

spread, 


spoilt, 
spoiled. 

spread. 


Show, 


showed, 


Spring, 


sprang, 


sprung. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Stand, 


sprung, 
stood, 


stood. 


Shrink, 


shrank, 
shrunk, 


shrunk, 
shrunken. 


Stave, 


stove, 
staved, 


stove, 
staved. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Stay, 


staid, 


staid, 


Sing, 


sang, 


sung. 


stayed, 


stayed. 




sung, 




Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Sink, 


sank, 
sunk, 


sunk, 
sunken. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Stink, 


stunk, 


stunk. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 




stank, 


strewn, 
strewed. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden, 
slid. 


Strew, 


strewed, 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Slink, 


slang, 
slunk, 


slunk. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, 
stricken. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slit, 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


slitted, 


slitted. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Smell, 


smelt, 
smelled, 


smelt, 
smelted. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strown, 
strowed. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, 












smit. 


Swear, 


swore, 
sware, 


sworn. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, 
sowed. 


Sweat, 


sweat, 
sweated, 


sweat, 
sweated. 


Speak, 


spoke, 
spake, 


spoken. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 



Forms of the Verb— Continued. 



279* 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Present. 


Past. 


Past Par. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelled, 
swollen. 


Wake, 


waked, 
woke, 


waked, 
woke. 


Swim, 


swam, 

swum, 


swum. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, 
waxen. 


Swing, 
Take, 


swung, 
took, 


swung, 
taken. 


Wear, 
Weave, 


wore, 
wove, 


worn, 
woven. 


Teach, 
Tear, 


taught, 
tore, 


taught, 
torn. 


Weep, 
Wet, 


wept, 
wet, 


wept, 
wet. 


Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 


tare, 

told, 

thought, 

throve, 

thrived, 

threw, 


told. 

thought. 

thriven, 

thrived. 

thrown. 


Will, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 

(to)wit, 


would, 

won, 

wound, 

wrought, 

worked, 


won. 
wound, 
wrought, 
worked. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


wot, 


wist, 


. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trodden, 
trod. 


Wring, 
Write, 


wrung, 
wrote, 


wrung, 
written. 



Note.— Professor Lounsbury says, "Modern English has lost not a single one. 
[irregular, or strong, verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth " ; and adds, " The- 
present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to the strong verbs- 
it already possesses but . . . even to extend their number whenever possible." And 
he instances a few which since 1600 have deserted from the regular conjugation to- 
the irregular. 

But it should be said that new English verbs, from whatever source derived, foxm 
their past tense and participle in ed. So that while the regular verbs are not increas- 
ing by desertions from the irregular, the regular verbs are slowly gaining in number. 



LESSON 13 4. 

FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION * — SIMPLEST FORM. 

Remark. — English verbs have few inflections compared with those 

* We give the conjugation of the verb in the simplest form consistent with what is 
now demanded of a text-book. Much of this scheme might well be omitted. 

Those who wish to reject the Potential Mode, and who prefer a more elaborate and. 
technical classification of the mode and tense forms, are referred to pages 373, 374. 



280 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



of other languages. Some irregular yerbs have seven forms — see 
saw, seeing, seen, sees, seest, sawest ; regular verbs have six — 
walk, walked, walking, walks, walkest, walkedst. As a sub- 
stitute for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what 
are called compound, or periphrastic, forms. 

Direction. — Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts 
of the verb walk — present walk; past walked; past 
participle walked : — 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



1. 


S 

(I) 
j (You) 
I (Thou) 

(He) , 

(I) 
j (You) 
1 (Thou) 

(He) 

(I) shall 
( (You) wi 
I (Thou) w 

(He) will 

(I) have 
j (You) ha 
I (Thou) h 

(He) ha-± 


ingul 
Pres. 
Pres. 
Pres. 
Pres. 

Past 


ar. 

> 

est,* 

s;* 

> 

St, 

Pres. , 
Pres. , 


1. (We) 

2. (You) 

3. (They) 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (We) 

2. (You) 

3. (They) 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. (We) st 

2. (You)i 

3. (They) 

ENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (We) h 

2. (You) ) 

3. (They) 


Plural. 

Pres. 


2. 


Pres. 


3. 


Pres. , 


1. 


Past , 


2. 


Past 
Past 
Past 

11 
il-t 

ve ^ 
a-st ■* 

i ^ 


Past , 


3. 


Past ■ 


1. 


hall Pres. , 






2. 
3. 

1. 

2, 
3. 


Pres. , 
Pres. ; 

PRES 
p ast Par., 
p ast Par., 
p ast Par., 
°ast Par. 


joill Pres. , 
will Pres. . 

ave Past Par., 
lave Past Par., 
have Past Par.. 



* In the indicative present, second, singular, old style, st is sometimes added in 
stead of est ; and in the third person, common style, es is added when s will not unite. 
In the third person, old style, eth is added. 



Forms of the Verb— Continued. 281 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) had Past Par. , 1. (We) had Past Par. % 

i (You) had J^, past 

\ (Thou) had-st Past Par. , v ; 

3. (He) had Past Par. : 3. (They) had Past Par. . 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) shall have Past Par. , 1. (We) shall have Past Par. . 

( (You) will have Past Par. , _ 

2. i V ., , „ , „ 2. (You) will have Past Par. . 
I (Thou) wil-t have Past Par. . K } 

3. (Re) will have Past Par. ; 3. (They) will have Past Par. , 

POTENTIAL MODE.* 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (1) may Pre*. , 1. (We) may Pres. . 

((You) may -^_> 2. (You) may ^. . 

( (Thou) may-st Pres. , v ' * — ' 

3. (He) may Pres. ; 3. (They) may •?>**• . 

PAST TENSE. 
1. (I) might Pres._ t 1. (We) might Pre*. 

2. 

3. (He) might Pres. : 3. (They) m^ Jra. 



( (You) might Pres. , 

1 /mi x 7^ .* — « — 2. (You) might Pres. 

I Thou) mi.ght-st Pres. , 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) may ftave Pas^Par., 1. (We) may Aa^e P«^ Pan . 

ft ( (You) may ftat'e Pa^ Par. , rt _ x . _ . _ 

2. 1 L x *, D , p 2. (You) may have Past Par. , 
( (Thou) may-st have Past Par. , v y •* ' 

3. (He) may have Past Par. -, 3. (They) may have Past Par. , 

* Those who do not wish to recognize a Potential Mode, but prefer the more 
difficult task of determining when may, might, could, would, and should are independ- 
ent verbs in the indicative, and when auxiliaries in the subjunctive, are referred to 
pages 370-374. 



■282 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. (I) might have Past Par. % 1. (We) might have Past Par. , 

. ( (You) might have PastPar. - :' . 

2. 1/mu \ t,/ #i P * P 2. (You) might have Past Par. , 
( (Thou) might-st have Past Par. , v ' * • 

43. (He) might have Past Par. ; 3. (They) might have Past Par. , 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.* 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 
2. (If thou) Pres. . 3. (If he) Pres. t 

IMPERATIVE MODE.f 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Pres. (you or thou) ; 2. Pres. (you or ye). 

* The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only dis- 
tinctive forms remaining (except for the verb be) are the second and the third person 
lingular of the present, and even these are giving way to the indicative. Such forms 
as If he have loved, etc. are exceptional. It is true that other forms, as, If he had 
known, Had he been, Should he fall, may be used in a true subjunctive sense, to assert 
what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought of, without regard 
to its being or becoming a fact ; but in these cases it is not the form of the verb but 
the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that determines the 
manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as 
indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning. 

The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging ; a 
classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse the 
learner. 

t From such forms as Let us sing, Let them talk, some grammarians make a first and 
a third person imperative. But us is not the subject of the verb-phrase let-sing, and let 
is not of the first person. Us is the object complement of let, and the infinitive sing is 
the objective complement, having us for its assumed subject. 

Some would find a first and a third person imperative in such sentences as "Now 



Forms of the Verb— Continued. 283 



INFINITIVES. 

PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

(To) * Pres. . (To) have Past Par. , 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. 

Pres. ing. Past L Par 1% Having Past Par. , 

tread we a measure " ; " Perish the thought" But these verbs express strong wish or 
desire and by some grammarians are called "optative subjunctives. 1 ' "Perish the 
thought 1 ' = "May the thought perish, 11 or " I desire that the thought may perish, 11 or 
"Let the thought perish. 11 

* To, as indicated by the ( ), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writes on lan- 
guage are generally agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an 
adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning to- 
ward, for, etc. ; as, I am inclined to believe ; I came to hear. When the infinitive 
phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation ; it seems merely to introduce the 
phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of some 
other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions, 
For me to do this would be wrong ; Over the fence is out of danger, few grammarians 
would hesitate to call for and over prepositions, though they have no antecedent term 
of relation. 

We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as 
does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of 
the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the " preposition to" (which, as they 
have said, is not a preposition) "placcJ. before the infinitive, 11 i. e., placed before that 
of which it forms a part — placed before itself. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it 
had its proper function as a preposition ; as, nominative etan (to eat) ; dative to 
etanne ; accusative etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the three 
forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but 
without expressing relation. 

This dative of the infinitive, with to, was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, 
after the dropping of the ne ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the 
infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place for before the to. "And 
for to deck heaven's battlements. 11 — Greene. " What went ye out for to see ? "—Bible* 
" Shut the gates for to preserve the town."— K. Hen. VI-, Part III. 



284 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



May, can, and must are potential auxiliaries in the 
present and the present perfect tense ; might, could, 
would, and should, in the past and the past perfect. 
v The emphatic form of the present and the past tense 
indicative is made by prefixing do and did to the present. 
Do is prefixed to the imperative also. 

To the Teacher.— Require the pupils to fill out these forms with other verbs, reg- 
ular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above. 



LESSON 135. 

FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION OP THE VERB BE.* 

Direction. — Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the 
line at the right of each verb : — 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 
1. (I) am , 1. (We) are , 



9 j (You) are , or 

*• \ ' \ . ■ 2. (You) are , 

( (Thou) art , J 

3. (He) is ; 3. (They) are . 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (I) was , 1. (We) were , 

_ ( (You) were , or ft .„ . 

2. \ ) J 2. (1 ou) were , 

( (Thou) wast , v J 

3. (He) was ; 3. (They) were . 

* The conjugation of be contains three distinct roots— as, be, was. Am, art, is, are 
are from as. Am = as-m (m is the m in me). Art = as-t (t is the th in thou). 
Be was formerly conjugated/I be, Thou beest, He beth or bes ; We be, Ye be, They be. 



Forms of the Verb— Continued. 285 



2. 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) shall be , 1. (We) shall be 

( (You) will be , or 

2. ■] \ ' „ 2. (You) will be 

( (Thou) wilt be , J 

3. (He) will be ; 3. (They) will be 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) have been , 1. (We) have been 

j (You) have been , or 

2 - i /rp, \ -, ,. u 2 - (You) have been 

( (Thou) hast been , v J 

3. (He) has been ; 3. (They) have been — 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) had been , 1. (We) had been 

_ ( (You) had been , or /T7 N , , , 

( (Thou) hadst been , 

3. (He) had been ; 3. (They) had been 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) shall have been , 1. (We) shall have been - 



j (You) will have been ■ 



2. "J , mi v .,, , t 2. (You) Will have been- 
( (Thou) wilt have been , 

3. (He) will have been ; 3. (They) will have been- 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) may be , 1. (We) may be , 



( (You) may be , or n /xr N . 

|L \ ; ,, 2. (You) may be — 

( (Thou) mayst be , J J 

3. (He) may be ; 3. (They) may be — 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (I) might be , 1. (We) might be — 

_ j (You) might be , or _ /Tr . . . L _ 

* 1 (Thou) mightet be , 2 ' < YoU ) mi S ht be ~ 

3. (He) might be ; 3. (They) might be 



286 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (I) may have been , 1. (We) may have been — 

. ( (You) may have been , or ft /Tr . . 

2. j 1, \ J A , , 2. (You) may have been - 
( (Thou) mayst have been , y J 

3. (He) may have been ; 3. (They) may have been - 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. (I) might have been , 1. (We) might have been - 

j (You) might have been , or . . 

2. -J ; mi '. . . , , _ . 2. (You) might have been - 
( (Thou) mightst have been , v ; & 

3. (He) might have been ; 3. (They) might have been- 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. (If I) be , 1. (If we) be , 

_ ( (If you) be , or a /T4! v , 

2. \ J If ( hou) be $ *' df ion) be , 

3. (If he) be ; 3. (If they) be . 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. (If I) were , 

2. 



j (If you) were , or 

\ (If thou) wert , 



3. (If he) were . 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 
2. Be (you or thou) ; 2. Be (you or ye) 

INFINITIVES. 

PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

(To) be . (To) have been . 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. 

Being . Been. Having been 



Forms of the Verb— Continued. 287 



LESSON 136. 



FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION — PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. 

A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining 
its present participle to the different forms of the verb he. 

A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by- 
joining its past participle to the different forms of the 
verb be. 

Remark. — The progressive form denotes a continuance of the 
action or being; as, The birds are singing. 

Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance — such as love, 
respect, know — should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We 
say, I love the child — not I am loving the child. 

Remarks. — The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive 
meaning ; as, The house is building. In such cases the word in ing 
was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition a, a contraction 
from on or in ; as, While the ark was a preparing; While the flesh 
was in seething. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and 
the word in ing is treated adjectively. 

Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb be com- 
pleted by the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our 
language — The house is being built, or was being built. Although 
condemned by many linguists as awkward and otherwise objection- 
able, it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in England. 
Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be am- 
biguous, i. e., when its subject might be taken to name either the 
actor or the receiver ; as, The child is whipping ; The prisoner is try- 
ing. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called neologism 
has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be 



288 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the 
ratio of three to one. 

Direction. — Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive 
fo rm by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the 
verb b e, in the preceding Lesson, with the present participle choos- 
ing; and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with 
the past participle cho sen. 

Notice that after the past participle of the verb be no blank is left. 
The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of be ; it is 
never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always 
passive except in such forms as have chosen, had chosen. (See have 
written, Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is want- 
ing. All the participles of the verb choose are arranged in order 

below. 

Present. Past. Past Perfect. 

Simplest form. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. 

Progressive form. Being choosing,* , having been choosing. 

Passive form. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. 

Direction. — Write and arrange as above all the participles of the 
verbs break, drive, read , lift. 

To the Teacher.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them in 
the progressive and in the passive form. Require them to give synopses of all the 
forms. Require them in some of their synopses to use it or some noun for the sub- 
ject in the third person. 

LESSON 137. 

CONJUGATION-CONTINUED. 

INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. 

A verb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indic- 
ative and potential modes by placing the subject after the 
first auxiliary ; as, Does he sing ? 

* This form Is not commonly used. 



Mode and Tense Forms. 289 



A verb may be conjugated negatively by placing not 
after the first auxiliary ; as, He does not sing. Not is 
placed before the infinitive and the participles ; as, not to 
sing, not singing. 

A question with negation is expressed in the indicative 
and potential modes by placing the subject and not after 
the first auxiliary ; as, Does lie not sing ? 

Remark. — Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the 
present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus : Loves 
he ? I know not. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in 
prose they are now scarcely used. We say, Does he love ? I do not 
know. The verbs he and have are exceptions, as they do not take the 
auxiliary do. We say, Is it right ? Have you another ? 

Direction. — Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of 
the verb walk conjugated (1) interrogatively, (2) negatively, 
and (3) so as to express a question ivith negation. Remember 
that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be 
used interrogatively. 

To the Teacher.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them 
negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive form. Require 
the pupils to give synopses of all the forms. 



LESSON 138. 

MODE AND TENSE FORMS. 

COMPOUND FORMS — ANALYSIS. 

The compound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb consisting of 
two words may each be resolved into an asserting word and a par- 
ticiple or an infinitive. 

19 



290 ModiTications of the Parts of Speech. 



If we look at the original meaning of the forms I do write, I shall 
write, I will write, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the 
real verb, and that write is an infinitive used as object complement. 
I do write = I do or perform the action (to) write. I shall 
write = I owe (to) write. I will write = I determine (to) 
write. 

May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, 
would write, and should write may each be resolved into an assert- 
ing word and an infinitive. . 

The forms is writing, was "written, etc. consist each of an assert- 
ing word (the verb be), and a participle used as attribute com- 
plement. 

The forms have written and had written are so far removed 
from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to 
correspond w>th their history. They originated from such expressions 
as I have a letter written, in which have ( = possess) is a transitive verb 
taking letter for its object complement, and written is a passive parti- 
ciple modifying letter. The idea of possession has faded out of have, 
and the participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form 
has been extended to intransitive verbs— Spring has come, Birds have 
flown, etc. being now regularly used instead of the more logical per- 
fect tense forms, Spring is come, Birds are flown. (Is come, are flown, 
etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) * 

* A peculiar use of had is found in the expressions had rather go and had better go, 
condemned by many grammarians who suppose had to be here used incorrectly for 
would or should. Of these expressions the " Standard Dictionary," an authority 
worthy of our attention, says :— 

41 Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel John- 
eon, the critics insisting upon the substitution of would or should, as the case may 
demand, for had ; but had rather and had better are thoroughly established English 
idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I 
would rather not go ' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the ele- 



Mode and Tense Forms. 291 



Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus : May- 
have "been written is composed of the compound auxiliary may 
have been and the participle written ; may have been is composed 
of the compound auxiliary may have and the participle been ; and 
may have is composed of the auxiliary may and the infinitive have. 
May is the asserting word — the first auxiliary is always the asserting 
word. 

Direction. — Study what has been said above and analyze the fol- 
lowing verbal forms, distinguishing carefully between participles that 
may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated 
as attribute complements : — 

1. I may be mistaken. 2. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be con- 
tented. 4. Has it been decided ? 5. You should have been working. 
6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired 
and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule 
has not been observed. 11. Stars have disappeared. 12. Times will 
surely change. 

ment of choice, or will, in the matter ; but in all ordinary cases ' I had rather not go ■ 
has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood. 

"If for 'You had better stay at home' we substitute ''You should better stay at 
home,' an entirely different meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place 
to that of obligation." 

In the analysis of " I had rather go" had is the predicate verb, the infinitive go is 
the object complement, and the adjective rather completes had and belongs to go, i. e., 
is objective complement. Had (= should hold or regard) is treated as a past subjunc- 
tive. Bather is the comparative of the old adjective rathe = early, from which 
comes the idea of preference- The expression means, " I should hold going prefer- 
able.' ■ 

The expressions "You had better stay," "I had as lief not be," are similar in 
construction to " I had rather go." "I had sooner go " is condemned by grammarians 
because sooner is never an adjective. If sooner is here allowed as an idiom, it is a 
modifier of had. The expression equals, " I should more willingly have going." 



292 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



TENSE FORMS — MEANING. 

The Present Tense is used to express (1) what is act- 
ually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what fre- 
quently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place 
in the future, and it is used (5) in describing past or future 
events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. 

Examples. — I hear a voice (action as present). The sun gives light 
(true at all times). He writes for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips 
speaks in Boston to-morrow night (future). He mounts the scaffold ; 
the executioners approach to bind him ; he struggles, resists, etc. (past 
events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of Culloden 
are scattered in fight ; they rally, they bleed, etc. (future events now 
seen in vision). 

The Past Tense may express (1) simply past action or 
being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and 
(4) it may refer to present time. 

Examples. — The birds sang (simply past action). He wrote for the 
newspapers (past habit). If I should go, you would miss me (future 
events). If he were here, he would enjoy this (refers to present time). 

The Future Tense may express (1) simply future action 
or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in 
time. 

Examples.---! shall write soon (simply future action). He will sit 
there by the hour (indefinite in time). 

The Present Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or 
being as completed in present time (i. e., a period of time — 
an hour, a year, an age — of which the present forms a 



Mode and Tense Forms. 293 



part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future 
period. 

Examples. — Homer has ivritten poems (the period of time affecued 
by this completed action embraces the present). When I have finished 
this, you shall have it (action to be completed in a future period). 

The Past Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being 
as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a con- 
ditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time. 

Examples. — I had seen him when I met you (action completed at a 
specified past time). If I had had time, I should have written (I had 
not time — I did not write.) 

The Future Perfect Tense expresses action to be com- 
pleted at some specified future time. 

Example. — I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon. 

Direction. — Study what has been said above about the meaning of 
the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the 
following verbs: — 

1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his 
little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 
5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many impor- 
tant facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero 
has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke 
curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives. 

12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 

13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week 
I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try 
that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried 
it. 17. She- starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along 
her keel 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



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Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 



295 



LESSON 139. 

PARSING. 

Direction. — Select and parse, according to the Model below, the 
verbs in the sentences of Lesson 42. For the agreement of verbs, see 
Lesson 142. 

Model for Written Parsing — Verbs. — The Yankee, selling his 
farm, wanders away to seek new lands. 



CLASSIFICATION. 




MOD 


IFICATI 


ONS. 




SYNTAX. 


Verbs. 
* selling 
wanders 
*seek 


Kind. 
Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. 
Reg., Int. 
Inf., Ir., Tr. 

(SeeM< 


Voice. 
Act. 

Act. 
3del for 


Mode. 
Ind. 

Written 


Tense. 
Pres. 

Parsing 


Num. Per. 

Mod. of Yankee. 

Sing. 3d. Pred. of Yankee. 

Prin. word in phrase 

Mod. of wanders. 

1 on opposite page.) 



LESSON 14 0. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS. 

Caution. — Be careful to give every verb its proper form 
and meaning. 

Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 

1. I done it myself. 2. He thro wed it into the river, for I seen him 
when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene 
that lays before her. 

Explanation. — Lay (to place) is transitive, lie (to rest) is intransi- 
tive ; set (to place) is transitive, sit (to rest) is intransitive. Set in 
some of its meanings is intransitive. 

4. The tide sits in. 5. Go and lay down. 6. The sun sits in the 



* Participles and infinitives have neither person nor number. 



^296 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was lain. 8. Sit the 
plates on the table. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 10. Your 
dress sets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there 
an hour. 13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. He has laid there 
an hour. 15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done 
it without my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. Some valu- 
able land was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They 
sung a new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I 
drunk there was better than any .that I had drank before. 22. The 
leaves had fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun 
to gather. 24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26.. He 
run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. 1 
inowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had 
began to think that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot 
learn him to do it. 30. I guess that I will stop. 31. I expect that he 
has gone to Boston. 32. There ain't any use of trying. 33. I have 
got no mother. 34. Can I speak to you ? 35. He had ought to see 
him. 

Explanation. — As ought is never a participle, it cannot be used 
after had to form a compound tense. 

Caution. — A conditional or a concessive clause takes a 
yerb in the indicative mode when the action or being is 
assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in 
the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the action 
•or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a con- 
tingency, or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put 
hypothetically something of whose truth or untruth he has 
no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The subjunctive is 
frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 297 



for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, 
and instead of the potential mode in independent clauses. 

Examples. — 1. If (= since) it rains, why do you go ? 

2. If it rains (now), I cannot go out. 

3. If it rain, the work will be delayed. 

4. Though it rain to-morrow, we must march. 

5. If there be mountains, there must be valleys be- 

tween. 

6. Though honey he sweet, one can't make a meal of it- 

7. If my friend were here, he would enjoy this. 

8. Though immortality were improbable, we should* 

still believe in it. 

9. One may doubt whether the best men be known. 

10. I wish the lad were taller. 

11. Oh ! that T e a Samson in strength. 

12. It were better lor him that a millstone were hanged 

about his neck. 

Explanation. — In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the- 
speaker is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and 
in the concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere con- 
tingency. The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothet- 
ically expressed in the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive 
clause of (6), and is certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically 
expressed in the conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause 
of (8). There is an indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for some- 
thing not at once attainable and in (11) for something forever 
unattainable, and in (12) the subjunctive mode is used in place of the- 
potential. 

Remarks. — When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or 
the subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative. 



296 Modifications ot the Parts of Speech. 



The present subjunctive forms may.be treated as infinitives used to 
complete omitted auxiliaries ; as, If it {should) rain, the work will be 
delayed ; Till one greater man (shall) restore us, etc. This will often 
serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive 
mode. 

If, though, lest, unless, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the 
subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed 
by the indicative than by the subjunctive. 

Direction. — Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the follow- 
ing sentences : — 

I. If this were so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he was there, 
I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow be fine, I will walk with you. 
4. Though this seems improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend is in 
town, he will call this evening. 6. If he ever comes, we shall know it. 

Explanation. — In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to 
be decided in future time. 

7. If he comes by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it were, 
from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 
10. If a pendulum is drawn to one side, it will swing to the other. 

Explanation. — Be is often employed in making scientific state- 
ments like the preceding, and may therefore be allowed. If a pendu- 
lum is drawn = Whenever a pendulum is drawn. 

II. I wish that I were a musician. 12. Were I so disposed, I could 
not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou yield. 14. 
Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 15. I know not 
whether it is so or not. 16. Would he were fatter ! 17. If there 
were no light, there would be no colors. 18. Oh, that he were a son 
of mine ! 19. Though it be cloudy to-night, it will be cold. 20. 
Though the whole exceed a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the 
whole. 21. Whether he go or not, I must be there. 22. Though an 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms— Continued. 299 



angel from heaven command it, we should not steal. 23. If there be 
an eye, it was made to see. 24. It were well it were done quickly. 

Direction. — Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the 
indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for yeur choice: — 

1. I wish it in my power to help you. 2. I tremble lest he 

. 3. If he guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He de- 
serves our pity, unless his tale a false one. 5. Though he 

there, I did not see him. 6. If he but discreet, he will succeed. 

7. If I he, I would do differently. 8. If ye men, fight. 



LESSON 141. 

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS- 
CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Be careful to employ the tense forms of the 
different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in 
such a way as to preserve the proper order of time. 

Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 

1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will 
they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. 3. He that was 
dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought a horse for one 
hundred dollars ; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of 
ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars. What per 
cent does he gain ? 5. I should say that it was an hour's ride. 6. If 
I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in 
Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song. 9. 
I intended to have called. 

Explanation. — This is incorrect ; it should be, I intended to call. 



300 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



The act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by 
intended. 

Remark. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, in- 
tending, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or 
future time.* 

The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and 
the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by 
the principal verb. 1 am glad to have met you is correct, because the 
meeting took place before the time of being glad. 

I eug}it to have gone is exceptional. Ought has no past tense form, 
and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression 
refer to past time. 

10. We hoped to have seen you often. 11. I should not have let 
you eaten it. 12. I should have liked to have seen it. 13. He would 
not have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have 
done it. 15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 16. 
The experiment proved that air had weight. 

Remark. — What is true or false at all times is generally expressed 
in the present tense, whatever tense precedes. 

There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When 
■a speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general propo- 
sition, he may use the past tense, giving it the form of an indi- 

* The "Standard Dictionary " makes this restriction : "The doubling of the past 
tenses in connection with the use of have with a past participle is proper and necessary 
when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of some- 
thing else mentioned or thought of. Attention to this qualification, which has been 
overlooked in the criticism of tense-formation and connection, is especially important 
and imperative. If one says, ' I meant to have visited Paris and to have returned to 
London before my father arrived from America, 1 the past [present perfect] infinitive 
. . . is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed. 'I 
meant to visit Paris and to return to London before my father arrived from America,' 
anay convey suggestively the thought intended, but does not express it." 



Construction of Mode and Tense Forms— Continued. 301 



rect quotation ; as, He said that iron was the most valuable of metals. 
The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of 
the principal verb ; as, 1 knew where the place was. 

17. I had never known before how short life really was. 18. We 
then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of 
utility. The General maintained that there was not ; Dr. Johnson 
maintained that there was. 19. I have already told you that I was a 
gentleman. 20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. 

Caution. — Use will and would to imply that the subject 
names the one whose will controls the action ; use shall 
and should to imply that the one named by the subject is 
under the control of external influence. 

Remark. — The original meaning of shall (to owe, to be obliged) and 
will (to determine) gives us the real key to their proper use. 

The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these 
auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of will 
names something incapable of volition ; as, The wind will blow. Even 
this may be a kind of personification. 

Examples. — I shall go ; You ivill go ; He ivill go. These are the 
proper forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the 
original meaning of shall and ivill. In the first person the speaker 
avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather 
than as something under the control of his own will. In the second 
and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others 
than to their duty. 

I will go. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. 
He either promises or determines to go. 

You shall go ; He shall go. Here the speaker either promises the 
going or determines to compel these persons to go ; in either case the 
one who goes is under some external influence. 



302 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Shall I go f Here the speaker puts himself under the control of 
some external influence — the will of another. 

Will I go ? — t. e., Is it my will to go ? — is not used except to repeat 
another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his own 
will is. 

Shall you go f Ans. I shall. Will you go ? Ans. I will. Shall 
he go ? Ans. He shall. Will he go f Ans. He will. The same 
auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer. 

No difficulty shall hinder me. The difficulty that might do the 
hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the con- 
trol of the speaker. 

He says that he shall go; He says that he will go. Change the 
indirect quotations introduced by that to direct quotations, and the 
application of the Caution will be apparent. 

You will see that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is 
only an apparent exception to the sule. A superior may courteously 
avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's 
willingness to obey. 

They knew that I should be there, and that he would be there. The 
same principles apply to should and would that apply to shall and will. 
In this example the events are future as to past time ; making them 
future as to present time, we have, They know that I shall be there, 
and that he will be there. 

My friend said that he should not set out to-morrow. Change the 
indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of should will be seen. 

Direction. — Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in 
each of the following sentences : — 

1. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy 
to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-day ? 4. I shall 
never see him again. 5. I will never see him again. 6. I said that he 
should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed to 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 303 



earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny 
thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in 
mine hand, yet would I not put forth my hand against the king's son. 

Direction. — Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, 
should, or ivould, and give the reasons for your choice : — 

1. He knew who betray him. 2. I be fatigued if I had 

walked so far. 3. You did better than I have done. 4. If he 

come by noon, you be ready ? 5. They do me wrong, and I 

not endure it. 6. I be greatly obliged if you do me the 

favor. 7. If I say so, I be guilty of falsehood. 8. You 

be disappointed if you see it. 9. he be allowed to go on ? 

10. you be unhappy, if I do not come ? 

Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 

1. Where will I leave you ? 2. Will I be in time ? 3. It was re- 
quested that no person would leave his seat. 4. They requested that 
the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to his 
party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy ? 6. I 
think we will have rain. 



LESSON 142. 

CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS. 

AGREEMENT . — VERBS — PRONOUNS. 

Caution. — A verb must agree with its subject in num- 
ber and person. 

Remarks. — Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. Are 
and -were are the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In 
the common style, most verbs have one person form, made by adding 
s or es (has, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the indica- 



804 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



tive present — ha(ve)s). The verb be has am (first person) and is (third, 
person). 

In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending est,, 
st, or t, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds. 
eth. (See Lessons 134 and 135.) 

Need and dare, when followed by an infinitive without to, are gener- 
ally used instead of needs and dares ; as, He need not do it ; He dare. 
not do it. 

Caution. — A collective noun requires a verb in the 
plural when the individuals in the collection are thought 
of ; but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the 
verb should be singular. 

Examples. — 1. The multitude were of one mind. 2. The multitude 
was too large to number. 3. A number were inclined to turn back. 
4. The number present was not ascertained. 

Caution. — When a verb has two or more subjects con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural. 

Exceptions. — 1. When the connected subjects are different names 
of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one 
whole, the verb must be singular ; as, My old friend and schoolmate 
is in town. Bread and milk is excellent food. 

2. When the connected subjects are preceded by each, every, many 
a, or no, they are taken separately, and the verb agrees with the near- 
est ; as, Every man, woman, and child was lost. 

3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb 
agrees with the first and is understood with the second; as, Time, and 
patience also, is needed. (The same is true of subjects connected by 
as well as ; as, Time, as well as patience, is needed.) 

4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 305 



the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, Books, and not pleasure, 
occupy his time. 

5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be 
emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest ; 
as, Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory. 

Remark. — When one of two or more subjects connected by and is 
of the first person, the verb is in the first person ; when one of the sub- 
jects is of the second person, and none of the first, the verb is in the 
second person. J, you, and he = we ; you and he = you. We say, 
Mary and I shall (not will) be busy to-morrow. 

Caution. — When two or more subjects are connected by 
or or nor, the verb agrees in person and number with the 
nearest ; as, Neither poverty nor wealth was desired ; 
Neither he nor they were satisfied. 

When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it 
is generally better to express the verb with each subject or 
to recast the sentence. 

Remarks. — When a singular and a plural subject are used, the 
plural subject is generally placed next to the verb. 

In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite 
for the speaker to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, 
■ except when he confesses a fault. 

Caution. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in 
number, gender, and person ; as, Thou who writest ; He 
who tvrites ; TJiey tuho write, etc. 

The three special Cautions given above for the agree- 
ment of the verb will also aid in determining the agreement 

of the pronoun with its antecedent. 
20 



306 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Remarks. — The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relat- 
ing to the indefinite subject it take, by attraction, the person and 
number of the complement when this complement immediately pre- 
cedes the adjective clause ; as, It is I that am in the wrong ; It is 
thou that Uftest me up ; It is the dews and showers that make the 
grass grow. 

The pronoun you, even when singular, requires a plural verb. 

Direction. — Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and 
pronouns : — 

1. Books is a noun. -2. The good are great. 3. The committee 
were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 4. The House 
has decided not to allow its members the privilege. 5. Three times 
four is twelve.* 6. Five dollars is not too much. 7. Twice as much 
is too much. 8. Two hours is & long time to wait. 9. To relieve the 
wretched was his pride. 10. To profess and to possess are two dif- 
ferent things. 11. Talking and eloquence are not the same. 12. The 
tongs are not in their place. 13. Every one is accountable for his own 
acts. 14. Every book and every paper was found in its place. 15. 
Not a loud voice, but strong proofs bring conviction. 16. This orator 
and statesman has gone to his rest. 17. Young's " Night Thoughts" 
is his most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood hath not 
revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country pursues him. 20. 
The second and the third Epistle of John contain each a single chap- 
ter. 21. Man is masculine because it denotes a male. 22. Therein 
consists the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth 
nor wisdom is the chief thing. 24. Either you or I am right. 25. 
Neither you nor he is to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, is 

* " Three times four is twelve " and " Three times four are twelve " are both used, 
and both are defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the num- 
ber four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it thought of ? 
The expression — Four taken three times is twelve. Times is a noun used adverbially. 



Construction of Number and Person Forms. 307 



going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, is here 
protected in his right. 28. There are one or two reasons.* 29. Nine 
o'clock and forty-five minutes is fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican 
figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words, f 31. Many a 
kind word and many a kind act has been put to his credit. 

Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 

1. Victuals are always plural. 2. Plutarch's " Parallel Lives" are 
his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels ? 4. " No, 
no," says I. 5. " We agree," says they. 6. Where was you ? 7. Every 
one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited 
their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions 
denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is several 
reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14. 
The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full whea 
this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money, 
as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you 
to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are 
capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their 
right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of 
the men was discharged. 23. Nine-tenths of every man's happiness 
depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 
25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust 
and ashes proud ? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. 
28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. 29. Our wel- 
fare and security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, 
sin. 31. He don't like it. 32. Many a heart and home have been 
desolated by drink. 

* When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition ©f the 
noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed. 

t The verb here agrees with figures, as picture-writing is logically explanatory of 
figures. 



308 



Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



GENERAL REVIEW. 

To the Teacher.— See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. 
Scheme for the Verb. 

( The numbers refer to Lessons.) 



8 



Uses. 



Classes. ■< 



To assert action, being, or state. — Predicate (4, 11). 
To assume action, being, or state. | f£tS(2)!" 



Form. 



Meaning. 



Modifications. 



( Regular (92). 

•< Irregular (92, 132, 133). 

( (Redundant and Defective.) 

( Transitive (92). 
( Intransitive (92). 

Voice $ Active < 129 ' 13 °)' 

( Passive (129, 130). 

{Indicative (131, 134-137). 
Potential (131, 134-137). 
Subjunctive (131, 134-137, 140). 
Imperative (131, 134-137). 



Mode. 



Tense. 



Number. 



Person. 



" Present. 
Past. 
Future. 

Present Perfect. 
Past Perfect. 
Future Perfect. 



131, 134-138, 
140, 141. 



| PS" [ »• »H «- 



C First. 
•< Second. 
( Third. 



131, 134, 135. 



Participles.— Classes. 



Infinitives. — 



( Present. 

■< Past. }• 131, 134-136. 

( Past Perfect. 
jprS'Perfect. } "1, 134. 135. 



Review Questions. 309 



Questions on the Verb. 

1. Define the verb and its classes. — Lessons 92, 132. 

2. Define the modifications of the verb. — Lessons 129, 131. 

3. Define the several voices, modes, and tenses. — Lessons 129, 131 

4. Define the participle and its classes. — Lesson 131. 

5. Define the infinitive. — Lesson 131. 

6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in all the 
different forms.— Lessons 134, 135, 136, 137. 

7. Analyze the different mode and tense forms, and give the func- 
tions of the different tenses. — Lesson 138. 

8. Give and illustrate the principles which guide ir the use of the 
mode and tense forms, and of the person and number forms. — Lessons 
140, 141, 142. 



LESSON 143. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 112. — "What are Modifications ? Have English words many 
inflections ? Have they lost any ? What is Number ? Define the 
singular and the plural number. How is the plural of nouns regu- 
larly formed ? In what ways may the plural be formed irregularly ? 
Illustrate. 

Lesson 113. — Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other lan- 
guages. How do compounds form the plural ? Illustrate the several 
ways. How do letters, figures, etc. form the plural ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 114. — Give examples of nouns having each two plurals differ- 
ing in meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers. 
Some which have no plural. Some which are always plural. What is 
said of the number of collective nouns ? 

Lesson 116. — In what four ways may the number of nouns be 
determined ? Illustrate. 



819 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



Lesson 117. — What is Gender ? Define the different genders. 
What is the difference between sex and gender ? The gender of Eng- 
lish nouns follows what ? Have English nouns a neuter form ? Have 
all English nouns a masculine and a feminine form ? In what three 
ways may the masculine of nouns be distinguished from the femi- 
nine ? Illustrate. Give the three gender forms of the pronoun. 

Lesson 118.— How is gender in grammar important ? When is the 
pronoun of the masculine gender used ? When is the neuter pronoun 
it used ? By the aid of what pronouns are inanimate things person- 
ified ? In personification, when is the masculine pronoun used, and 
when is the feminine ? Illustrate. What is the Caution relating to 
gender ? 

Lesson 119.— What is Person ? Is the person of nouns marked by 
form ? Define the three persons. When is a noun in the first per- 
son ? In the second person ? What classes of words have distinctive 
person forms ? Why is person regarded in grammar ? What is 
Case ? Define the three cases. What is the case of a noun used inde- 
pendently ? Of an explanatory modifier ? Of an objective comple- 
ment ? Of a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement 2 Illus- 
trate all these. 

Lesson 121. — What is Parsing ? Illustrate the parsing of nouns. 



LESSON 144. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 122. — How many case forms have nouns, and what are they ? 
How is the possessive of nouns in the singular formed ? Of nouns in 
the plural ? Illustrate. What is the possessive sign ? To which 
word of compound names or of groups of words treated as such is the 



Review Questions. 311 



sign added ? Illustrate. Instead of the possessive form, what may 
be used ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 123. — In what case alone can mistakes in the construction of 
nouns occur ? Illustrate the Cautions relating to possessive forms. 

Lesson 124. — What is Declension ? Decline girl and tooth. Decline 
the several personal pronouns, the relative and the interrogative. 
What adjective pronouns are declined wholly or in part ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 125. — What words in the language have each three different 
case forms ? What are the nominative, and what the objective, forms 
of the pronouns ? 

Lesson 127. — What one modification have adjectives ? What is 
Comparison ? Define the three degrees. How are adjectives regularly 
compared ? What are the Rules for Spelling ? Illustrate them. 
How are adjectives of more than one syllable generally compared ? 
How are degrees of diminution expressed ? Can all adjectives be com- 
pared ? Illustrate. How are some adverbs compared ? Illustrate the 
irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 

Lesson 128. — To how many things does the comparative degree re- 
fer ? What does it imply ? Explain the office of the superlative. 
What word usually follows the comparative, and what the superlative ? 
Give the Cautions relating to the use of comparatives and superlatives, 
and illustrate them fully. 

Lesson 129. — What is Voice ? Of what class of verbs is it a modifi- 
cation ? Name and define the two voices. When is the one voice 
used, and when the other ? Into what may the passive form be re- 
solved ? Illustrate. What may be mistaken for a verb in the passive 
voice ? Illustrate. 

Lesson 130. — In changing a verb from the active to the passive, 
what does the object complement become ? How may an intransitive 
Terb sometimes be made transitive ? Illustrate. 



312 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 



LESSON 145. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

Lesson 131. — What is Mode ? Define the four modes. What is 
Tense ? Define the six tenses. Define the infinitive. Define the par- 
ticiple. Define the classes of participles. What are the number and 
person of a verb ? 

Lesson 132. — What is Conjugation ? Synopsis ? What are auxil- 
iary verbs ? Name them. What are the principal parts of a verb ? 
What are redundant and what are defective verbs ? 

Lesson 134. — How many inflectional forms may irregular verbs 
have ? How many have regular verbs ? What is said of the sub- 
junctive mode ? Of to with the infinitive ? How is a verb conju- 
gated in the emphatic form ? 

Lesson 136. — How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form ? 
How is a transitive verb conjugated in the passive voice ? Give an 
example of a verb in the progressive form with a passive meaning. 
What does the progressive form denote ? Can all verbs be conjugated 
in this form ? Why ? Give all the participles of the verbs choose, 
break, drive, read, lift. 

Lesson 137. — How may a verb be conjugated interrogatively? Neg- 
atively ? Illustrate. How may a question with negation be expressed 
in the indicative and potential modes ? 

Lesson 138. — Into what may the compound, or periphrastic, forms 
of the verb be resolved ? Illustrate fully. What is said of the parti- 
ciple in have written, had written, etc. ? Give and illustrate the several 
uses of the six tenses. 

Lesson 140. — Show how the general Caution for the use of the verb 
is frequently violated. When does a conditional or a concessive clause 



Letter-Writing. 313 



require the verb to be in the indicative? Illustrate. When is the 
subjunctive used? Illustrate the many uses of the subjunctive. 

Lesson 141. — Give and illustrate the general Caution relating to 
mode and tense forms. Give and illustrate the Caution in regard to 
will and would, shall and should. 

Lesson 142. — Give and illustrate the Cautions relating to the agree- 
ment of verbs and pronouns. Illustrate the exceptions and the Re- 
marks. 



LESSON 146. 

LETTER-WRITING. 

Few people write for the newspaper; fewer still for the magazine; 
and fewest of all write books. Only a small fraction of even cultivated 
people consequently appear in print at all. 

But we all write letters — letters to parents, to brothers and sisters 
and distant relatives, to teachers and other adults, and to acquaint- 
ances, more or less intimate, of our own age. We write letters of friend- 
ship, letters on all kinds of business, official letters, and notes of ceremony. 

Much that has been said or implied about writing applies to letters 
as to other kinds of composition. But, as letters differ in some essen- 
tial respects from ordinary productions, we^ give them here a special 
treatment. In writing a letter there are five things to consider — The 
Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The Conclusion, 
and The Superscription. 



314 Composition. 



THE HEADING. 

Parts. — The Heading consists of the name of the Place at which 
the letter is written, and the Date. If you write from a city, give 
the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the 
name of the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any other 
well-known Institution, its name may take the place of the door- 
number and the name of the street ; as may also the number of your 
post-office box. If you write from a village or other country place, 
give your post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the 
state. 

The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. 

How "Written. — Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from 
the top of the page — on the first ruled line of commercial note. If 
the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page, you may begin the 
Heading lower down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little to 
the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more than one line, 
the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and 
the third farther to the right than the second. 

The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in 
figures ; the rest, in words. Each important word begins with a capi- 
tal letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with 
a period. 

Direction. — Study what has been said, and write the following 
headings according to these models : — 

1. Ripton, Addison Co., Yt., 3. Saco, Me., Feb. 25, 1887. 

July 10, 1895. 4. Polytechnic Institute, 

2. 250 Broadway, N. Y., Brooklyn, N. Y., 

June 6, 1890. May 3, 1888. 

1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan 2. champlain co clinton n y jan 
14 1800 3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 Chicago 4. Philadelphia 670 
1858 chestnut st 16 apr 5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 1855 



Letter-Writing. 315 



THE INTRODUCTION. 

Parts. — The Introduction consists of the Address — the Name, the 
Title, and the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed — 
and the Salutation. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in 
the Address. Prefix Mr. to a man's name, Messrs. to the names of 
several gentlemen ; Master to the name of a young lad ; Miss to that 
of an unmarried lady ; Mrs. to that of a married lady ; Misses to the 
names of several young ladies ; and Mesdames to those of several 
married or elderly ladies. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician (but 
never Mr. Dr.), or write M.D. after it. Prefix Rev. to the name of a 
clergyman, or Rev. Mr. if you do not know his Christian name ; Rev. 
Dr. if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write Rev, before the name and 
D.D. after it. Prefix His Excellency to the name of the President,* 
and to that of a Governor or of an Ambassador ; Hon. to the name 
of a Cabinet Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law 
Judge, or a Mayor. If two literary or professional titles are added to 
a name, let them stand in the order in which they were conferred — 
this is the order of a few common ones : A.M., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D. 
Guard against an excessive use of titles — the higher implies the 
lower. 

Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the 
writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed 
as Sir, Dear Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, etc. ; acquaintances as 
Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc. ; friends as My dear Sir, My dear 
Madam, My dear Jones, etc. ; and near relatives and other dear 
friends as My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc. 

How Written. — The Address may follow the Heading, beginning 
on the next line, and standing on the left side of the page ; or it may 
stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the 

* The preferred form of addressing the President is, To the President, Executive 
Mansion, Washington, D. C. ; the Salutation is simply, Mr. President 



316 Composition. 



Conclusion. If the letter is of an official character or is written to an 
intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom 
of the letter ; but in ordinary business letters, it should be placed at 
the top and as directed above. Never omit it from the letter except 
when the letter is written in the third person. There should be a 
narrow margin on the left side of the page, and the Address should 
begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than 
one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right. 

Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of 
it when the Address occupies three lines ; on the marginal line or 
farther to the right or to the left than the second line of the Address 
when this occupies two lines ; a little to the right of the marginal line 
when the Address occupies one line ; on the marginal line when the 
Address stands below. 

Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital 
letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma; and, as it is 
an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every impor- 
tant word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the 
whole should be followed by a comma, or by a comma and a dash. 

Direction. — Write these introductions according to the models : — 

1. Prof. March, Easton, Pa. 3. My dear Mother, 

My dear Sir, When, etc 

2. Messrs. Smith & Jones, 4. Messrs. Vallette & Co., 

771 Broadway, Middlebury, Vt t 

New York City. Dear Sirs, 

Gentlemen, 

1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir 2. mass Cambridge prof 
james r lowell my dear friend 3. messrs ivison blakeman taylor & co 
gentlemen new york 4. rev brown dr the arlington Washington dear 
friend d c 5. col John smith dear colonel n y auburn 



Letter-Writing-. 3W 



LESSON 147. 

LETTER-WRITING-CONTINUED. 

THE BODY OF THE LETTER. 

The Beginning. — Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the 
Salutation, and on the same line if the Introduction is long — in which 
case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash, — on 
the line below if the Introduction is short. 

Style. — Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other 
kinds of writing. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and 
all other offenses against epistolary propriety. The letter "bespeaks 
the man." Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and 
familiar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your 
friends, however trivial it may seem to a stranger. 

Business letters should be brief, and the sentences short, concise, 
and to the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing needful. 

Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and cere- 
monious. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead 
of the first and the second ; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, 
no Signature, only the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, 
on the left side of the page, thus : — 

Mr. & Mrs. A. request the pleasure of Mr. BSs company at a social 
gathering, on Tuesday evening, Nov. loth, at eight o'clock. 

32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5. 

Mr. B. accepts* with pleasure Mr. & Mrs. A?s hind invitation for 
Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th. 
Wednesday morning, Nov. 9th. 

* Or regrets that a previous engagement (or illness, or an unfortunate event) pre- 
vents the acceptance of ; or regrets that on account of he is unable to 

accept . 



318 Composition. 



THE CONCLUSION. 

Parts. — The Conclusion consists of the Complimentary Close 

and the Signature. The forms of the Complimentary Close are 
many, and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one 
addressed. In letters of friendship you may use, Your sincere friend; 
Yours affectionately ; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business 
letters you may use, Yours ; Yours truly ; Truly yours ; Yours respect- 
fully ; Very respectfully yours, etc. In official letters you should be 
more deferential. Use, I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient ser- 
vant ; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant ; etc., etc. 

The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. 
In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady 
addressing a stranger should prefix to her signature her title, Mrs. 
or Miss (placing it within marks of parenthesis), unless in the letter 
she has indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in 
reply. 

How "Written. — The Conclusion should begin near the middle of 
the first line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying two or 
more lines, should slope to the right like the Heading and the Ad- 
dress. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in 
other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature 
should be very plain. 

Direction. — Write two formal notes — one inviting a friend to a 
social party, and one declining the invitation. 

Direction. — Write the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of a 
letter of business, and of an official letter, carefully observing all that 
has been said above. 

Direction. — Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or 
your mother, and another to your minister, taking care to give prop- 



Letter-Writing-. 319 



erly the Heading in its two parts, the Introduction in its two parts, 
and the Conclusion in its two parts. Let the Address in the letter to 
your father or your mother stand at the bottom. 



LESSON 148. 

LETTER-WRITING-CONTINUED. 

THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 

Parts. — The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the 
envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the 
Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed. 

How Written. — The Superscription should begin just below the 
middle of the envelope and near the left edge — the envelope lying 
with its closed side toward you — and should occupy three or four 
lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and 
the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and 
the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the 
first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed 
is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on 
the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name 
of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the 
post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the 
third, the name of the state on the fourth. The number of the post- 
office box may take the place of the door-number and the name of 
the street, or, to avoid crowding, the number of the box or the name 
of the county may stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles fol- 
lowing the name should be separated from it and from each other by 
the comma, and every line should end with a comma except the last, 
which should be followed by a period.* The lines should be straight, 

* Some omit punctuation after the parts of the Superscription. 



320 



Composition. 



and every part of the Superscription should be legible. Place the 
stamp at the upper right-hand corner. 

Direction. — Write six Superscriptions to real or imaginary friends 
or acquaintances in different cities, carefully observing all that has 
been said above. 

Direction. — Write two short letters — one to a friend at the Astor 
House, Neiv York, and one to a stranger in the country. 







niiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiii 
























~ ™ 






in 
in 






= STAMP. 2 


















llll 












II I 1 1 Ik 




ns, 




C 


-JL 


ids. 



(Zy^y^^a^y C2>u^z^; 




S£, \ 





'sWl£S. 



sn* 



^J^U^y^^^^^U^Zy-. ^Z£<£, 




^Uz/~ 






^^^U^t^yU^i'. 








~'/0^^^i££^/zZ^^£ 




321 






/ / 



// y 




'^?ZS 




'^^^^t^^^M^^^, 





st&m^^A^^d^^ 



// y 



'^^^^^y^^a^zy^A^^^d^h< 






>^%^. 




^6<?z/- 






yi^z^r 






322 



COMPOSITION- 



LESSON 146. 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS AND 
PUNCTUATION. 

CAPITAL LETTERS, TERMINAL MARKS, AND THE COMMA. 

Capital Letters. — The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) 
a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete 
sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and 
(4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed 
should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital 
letter (5) proper names (including all names of the Deity), 
and words derived from them, (6) names of things vividly 
personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital 
letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in the 
Eoman notation.* 

Period. — Place a period after (1) a declarative or an im- 
perative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, (3) a number written 
in the Eoman notation, and (4) Arabic figures used to 
enumerate. 

Interrogation Point. — Every direct interrogative sen-/ 

* Small letters are often used in referring to sections, chapters, etc. 

325 



326 Composition. 

tence or clause should be followed by an interrogation 
point. 

Exclamation Point. — All exclamatory expressions must 
be followed by the exclamation point. 

Comma, — Set off by the comma (1) an explanatory modi- 
fier which does not restrict the modified term or combine 
closely with it ; (2) a participle used as an adjective modi- 
fier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive ; (3) 
the adjective clause when not restrictive ; (4) the adverb 
clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it 
modifies ; (5) a phrase out of its usual order or not closely 
connected with the word it modifies ; (6) a word or phrase 
independent or nearly so ; (7) a direct quotation introduced 
into a sentence, unless formally introduced ; (8) a noun 
clause used as an attribute complement ; and (9) a term 
connected to another by or and having the same meaning. 
Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, 
unless all the conjunctions are expressed ; (11) co-ordinate 
clauses when short and closely connected ; and (12) the 
parts of a compound predicate, and other phrases, when 
long or differently modified. Use the comma (13) to denote 
an omission of words y '1.4) after as, namely, etc., introdu- 
cing illustrations ; and (15) when it is needed to prevent 
ambiguity. 

Direction. — Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark of 
punctuation in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon, and the 
quotation marks : — 



Summary of Rules for Capital Letters, etc. 327 



1. Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine 
de Medici and Henry II., sat upon the French throne. 2. The pupil 
asked, " When shall I use 0, and when shall I use oh? " 3. Purity 
of style forbids us to use : 1. Foreign words ; 2. Obsolete words ; 3. 
Low words, or slang. 4. It is easy, Mistress Dial, for you, who have 
always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse one 
of laziness. 5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. 
6. The Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of the 
Saracens, Caliph Omar having, in 637 a. d., taken Jerusalem. 7. He 
who teaches, often learns himself. 8. San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1492. 9. 
3ome letters are superfluous ; as, c and q. 

10. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet 
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet ! 

Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- 
tion in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 

1. and lo from the assembled crowd 
there rose a shout prolonged and loud 
that to the ocean seemed to say 
take her o bridegroom old and gray 

2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a 
girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary 
man elijah the tishbite 3. The result however of the three years' 
reign or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from hol- 
land and without shedding a drop of blood became a d 1688 wm iii of 
england 4. o has three sounds : 1. that in not ; 2. that in note; 3. 
that in move 5. lowell asks and what is so rare as a day in June 6. 
spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid 7. if i may judge 
by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of his 
music autumn is i should say the poet of the family 8. new york apr 
30 1789 9. some letters stand each for many sounds ; as a and o 



328 Composition. 



LESSON 147. 

SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED. 
SEMICOLON AND COLON. 

Semicolon. — Co-ordinate clauses, (1) when slightly con- 
nected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, 
must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon 

(3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common 
dependence on something which precedes or follows ; and 

(4) before as, to wit, namely, i. e., and that is, when they 
introduce examples or illustrations. 

Direction. — Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctua- 
tion {except the colon) in these sentences: — 

1. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; but it will stand, 
and it will richly compensate for both. 2. Some words are delightful 
to the ear ; as, Ontario, golden, oriole. 3. The shouts of revelry had 
died away ; the roar of the lion had ceased ; the last loiterer had 
retired from the banquet ; and the lights in the palace of the victor 
were extinguished. 4. Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there ; 
let them hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon ; let 
them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of 
Bunker Hill : and the very walls will cry out in its support. 

Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- 
tion in these sentences, and give your reasons: — 

1. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf 2. 
when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and light- 
ning flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at 



Summary of Rules— Continued. 329 



the storm 3. the oaks of the mountains fall the mountains them- 
selves decay with years the ocean shrinks and grows again the moon 
herself is lost in heaven 4. kennedy taking from her a handkerchief 
edged with gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her 
by the arms led her to the block and the queen kneeling down said 
repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands o lord i commend my 
spirit 

Colon. — Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sen- 
tence when these parts are themselves divided by the 
semicolon, and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration 
of particulars when formally introduced. 

Direction. — Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctu^ • 
Hon in these sentences : — 

1. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, still more 
extravagantly ; accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow ; 
traffic and barter with every little, pitiful German prince that sells 
and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country : your 
efforts are forever vain and impotent. 2. This is a precept of Socra- 
tes : "Know thyself." 

Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- 
tion in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 

1. the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours 
will take care of themselves 2. we may abound in meetings and move- 
ments enthusiastic gatherings in the field and forest may kindle all 
minds with a common sentiment but it is all in vain if men do not 
retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposi- 
tion 

Direction.— Write sentences illustrating the several uses of the 
semicolon, the colon, and the comma. 



330 Composition. 



LESSON 148. 

SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED. 

THE DASH, MARKS OP PARENTHESIS, APOSTROPHE, HYPHEN, QUOTATION 
MARKS, AND BRACKETS. 

Dash. — Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of 
letters or figures, and (2) of such words as as, namely, or 
that is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. 
Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, 
and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, 
or another takes its place ; and (4) before a word or phrase 
repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used 
(5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow 
other marks, adding to their force. 

Direction. — Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctua- 
tion in these sentences : — 

1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three — Saul, David, 

and Solomon. 2. When Mrs. B heard of her son's disgrace, she 

fainted away. 3. And — ' 'This to me ?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece, 
Rome, Carthage — what are they ? 5. I do not rise to supplicate you 
to be merciful toward the nation to which I belong, — toward a nation 
which, though subject to England, yet is distinct from it. 6. We 
know the uses — and sweet they are — of adversity. 7. His place of 
business is 225 — 229 High street. 

Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- 
tion in these sentences^ and give your reasons: — 

1. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who 
borrow and those who lend 2. this bill this infamous bill the way it 



Summary of Rules— Continued. 33i 



has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents 
have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected 
all these things dissipate my doubts 3. the account of a 's shame 

fills pp 1 19 4. lord marmion turned well was his need and dashed 
the rowels in his steed 

Marks of Parenthesis. — Marks of parenthesis may be 
used to inclose what has no essential connection with the 
rest of the sentence. 

Apostrophe. — Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omis- 
sion of letters,, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and 
characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other 
cases. 

Hyphen. — Use the hyphen (-) (1) to join the parts of 
compound words, and (2) between syllables when a word 
is divided. 

Quotation Marks. — Use quotation marks to inclose a 
copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quo- 
tation, the latter is inclosed within single marks. (See 
Lesson 74.) 

Brackets. — Use brackets [ ] to inclose what, in quoting 
another's words, you insert by way of explanation or cor- 
rection. 

Direction. — Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sen- 
tences : — 

1. Luke says, Acts xxi. 15, "We took up our carriages [luggage], 
and went up to Jerusalem." 2. The last sentence of the composition 
was, " I close in the words of Patrick Henry, ' Give me liberty, or give 



332 Composition. 



me death.' " 3. Red-hot is a compound adjective. 4. Telegraph is 
divided thus : tel-e-graph. 5. The profound learning of Sir William 
Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) was the wonder of his 
contemporaries. 6. By means of the apostrophe you know that love 
in mother's love is a noun, and that tfs isn't a verb. 

Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation 
in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 

1. next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye life 
isnt worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings 2. man 
the life boat 3. dont neglect in writing to dot your is cross your ts 
and make your 7s unlike your 9s and dont in speaking omit the hs 
from such words as which when and why or insert rs in law saw and 
raw 4. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow 
5. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in 
that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and 
inseparable 



LESSON 149. 

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION-REVIEW. 

Direction. — Give the reason for each capital letter and each mark 
of punctuation in these sentences : — 

1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye ; the more light you 
pour upon it, the more it contracts. 2. This is the motto of the Uni- 
versity of Oxford : " The Lord is my light." 3. The only fault ever 
found with him is, that he sometimes fights ahead of his orders. 4. 
The land flowing with "milk and honey " (see Numbers xiv. 8) was 
a long, narrow strip, lying along the eastern edge, or coast, of the 
Mediterranean, and consisted of three divisions ; namely, 1. On the 
north, Galilee ; 2. On the south, Judea ; 3. In the middle, Samaria. 



Capital Letters and Punctuation— Review. 333 



5. "What a lesson," Trench well says, "the word ' diligence r con- 
tains ! " 

6. An honest man, my neighbor, — there he stands — 
Was struck — struck like a dog, by one who wore 
The badge of Ursini. 

7. Thou, too, sail on, Ship of State ; 
Sail on, Union, strong and great. 

. 8. O'Connell asks, " The clause which does away with trial by jury 

— what, in the name of H n, is it, if it is not the establishment of 

a revolutionary tribunal ? " 9. There are only three departments of 
the mind— the intellect, the feelings, and the will. 10. This — trial I 
11. American nationality has made the desert to bud and blossom as 
the rose ; it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts ; it has 
whitened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring, new, and lawful 
trade ; it has extended to exiles, flying as clouds, the asylum of our 
better liberty. 12. As I saw him [Webster, the day before his great 
reply to Col. Hayne of South Carolina] in the evening, (if I may borrow 
an illustration from his favorite amusement) he was as unconcerned 
and as free of spirit as some here present have seen him while floating 
in his fishing-boat along a hazy shore, gently rocking on the tranquil 
tide, dropping his line here and there, with the varying fortune of the 
sport. The next morning he was like some mighty admiral, dark and 
terrible, casting the long shadow of his frowning tiers far over the 
sea, that seemed to sink beneath him ; his broad pendant [pennant] 
streaming at the main, the stars and the stripes at the fore, the 
mizzen, and the peak ; and bearing down like a tempest upon his 
antagonist, with all his canvas strained to the wind, and all his thun- 
ders roaring from his broadsides. 13. The "beatitudes" are found in 
Matt. v. 3—11. 

To the Teacher. — If further work in punctuation is needed, require the pupils 
to justify the punctuation of the sentences beginning page 314. 



INDEX. 



Abbrevia- 
tions, 

Absolute 
Phrases, 



( 



PAGE 

A, or an, uses of 182-185 

A and the, uses of distinguished 183 

A (day) or tivo, or one or two (days) 

250 (note) 

common ones 19 

how made and written. 17, 18 

of names of states 19 

definition of 81, 82 

diagram of 71 

expansion of 142, 143 

Adjective an, definition of 22, 23, 181 

apt ones to be used 185 

i definitive (nu- 
classes, -< meral), 181 & note 

' descriptive 181 

C adjectives not 

compared 259 

adjectives ir- 
regularly com- 
pared 260 

form preferred. 259 
in er and est. . 258 
with adverb, 

258, 259 
descriptive, used as nouns, 251 
errors in use of. . .56, 185, 192 
having number forms, 

257 (note) 
needless ones avoided.. 185 
not always limiting, 

181 & note 

not used for adverbs.. 55, 192 

cardinal. 181 (note) 

ordinal.. 181 (note) 

proper order of 25, 26 

scheme for general re- 
view 265 

used as abstract nouns, 

173 (note) 



Adjectives, 



compari- 
son, 



numeral H 



Clauses, 



PAGE 

connectives of 201 

definition of 102 

= adjectives 102, 107 

=s explanatory modifiers. 109 
= independent clauses, 

107 (note) 

= infinitive phrases 108 

= participle phrases 108 

= possessives 109 

modifying omitted words, 

105, 106 

position of 107 

restrictive and unrestric- 

tive 106, 107 (note) 

unrestrictive, punctua- 
tion 106 

Adjective Complement distinguished 

from adverb modifier 55 

Adjective J analysis of 24 

Modifiers, i nouns as 57-61 

Adverb an, definition of 27, 28, 189 

f apt ones to be used 190 

classes of 188-190 

comparison of 260, 261 

errors in use of. . .56, 190-193 
expressing negation, 

188 (note) 
irregular comparison of. 261 

f clauses 189 (note) 

phrases, 



I 



Adverbs, 



modi- 31, 33, 189 (note) 

fying prepositions, 

33, 189 (note) 

sentences. .189 (note) 

not used for adjectives, 55,192 

not used needlessly 190 

position of 29, 191 

scheme for general re- 
view 265,266 

333 



334 



Index. 



Adverbs 

ipont.), 



used 



Adverb 
Clauses, 



PAGE 

sometimes like adjective 

attributes 52 

'independently, 

82, 189 (note) 
interrogatively, 

189 (note) 
with connective 

force 189 (note) 

Adverb Clause, definition of 110 

' cause, real, 

113, 114 
concession, 

115, 116 
condition, 

115, 116 
classes, ■{ degree (result), 

110-112 
evidence.. 11 3, 114 
manner. ..113, 114 

place 110, 111 

purpose... 11 5, 116 

time 110, 111 

by omitting 

words 121 

to absolute 

phrases 119 

to participles 
and partici- 
ple phrases, 

119 
to prepo- 
sitional 

phrases 120 

= adjective clauses and 

phrases 107 (note), 121 

= adverbs 109, 110 

= independent clauses, 

107 (note), 138, 139 

position of 118 

punctuation of 117 

analysis of 28 

nouns as 62 

parsing of 28 

Adversative Connectives, list 201 

Adversative, meaning of, 132, 134, 201 (note) 
A few, a little, vs. few and little.. , » . . 184 



contracted - 



Adverbial j 
Modifiers, ) 



PAGE 

f with you in the singular. . 306 
Agree- J of pronoun with its ante- 

ment, j cedent 305-307 

L of verb with the subject. 303-307 

Allusion 87 (note) 

/ definition of 5 

P < perfect one what 5 

• ' the English imperfect how.. 5 
Alternative, meaning of, 132, 134, 201 (note) 

Alternative Connectives, list 201 

Ambiguity of pronouns, how avoided. 174,175 
i examples for, additional. . . 149 

Analysis, < of a sentence 8 

' of subjects of themes 158 

Antecedent, a clause, phrase, or word, 

172 (note), 173 

Antithesis 136 (note) 

Any body (or one) else" 3 251 (note) 

Apostrophe the 61, 240-242, 329 

Appositives 57 

Argumentative Style 164, 167 

Arrangement 89-99, 178, 185, 186, 191 

f classes, j de f ite *» 

( indefinite 181 

Articles, -j errors in use of 183-186 

repeated when 183, 184 

[_ uses of a, or an, and the. . . 183 

' introductory conjunction-. 52, 54, 135 

relative pronoun 172 (note) 

As, \ with clauses of degree, manner, 

and time Ill, 113, 114, 201 

with variety of clauses 203 

As . . . as, construction of Ill 

As it were, construction of 135 

Aspirates 5, 6 

Assumed Subject, what. 74 

Attribute j definition of 50 

Complement, I diagram of 51 

Auxiliary Verbs, 

273, 274, 284, 290, 291, 301 , 302 

Be ( conjugation of 284-286 

' 1 derivation of 284 (note) 

Beside and besides distinguished. 197 (note) 

Best of the two 262 

Between with three or more 195 (note) 

Brackets, \. of 329 



Index. 



335 



But, -{ 



Capital 
Letters, 



Case, 



PAGE 

adversative conjunction 201 

a preposition 76, 212 

various uses of 212 

with or without that . . .176 (note) 
| with ivhat incorrect for but 

L that or but 176 (note) 

Can 275 (note), 284 

in abbreviations 14 

in beginning sentences 9 

in class names 15 

; n compound names 15-17 

in names of the Deity 16 

in proper names 14-17 

in titles 16 

rule for I and 42 

^ summary of rules for 823 

' denned 234, 236 

of attribute complement, 237 & note 

of explanatory modifier 236 

of noun or pronoun independent 236 
of noun or pronoun used ad- 
verbially 238 

of objective complement 237 

definitions of 236 

•i Anglo-Saxon and in 

Latin 234 (note) 

errors in use of 251-254 

five pronouns have three . . 251 

nouns have two 

only eight nominative 
. only seven objective. . 

Cause, adverbs of 

Cause Clauses, divisible , 115 

necessity of 12 

not governed by logical 

relation 107 (note) 

dependent.. 102, 133 

independent. 102, 133 

complex and compound,139,140 

adjective 102 

adverb 110 

noun 123 

inde- f in alternation . . 134 

pendent, J in contrast 134 

(the 1 in same line . . . 134 
. thought) t inferred 135 



■\ 



Cases, 



Case 
Forms, 



Classi- 
fication, 



Clauses, 



240 



189 



classes, 



depend- 
ent, 



Compari- 
son, 



Comple- 
ment, 

Comple- 
ments, 

Complex 
Sentence, 



PAGE 

Collective j form of verb with 304 

Nouns, ( of what number 225 

Colon 136, 327 

Comma, rules for, 

34, 40, 59, 72, 83, 106, 117, 127, 135, 324 

C adjectives without it 259 

cautions to guide in. .261-264 

definition of 257 

degree used with two 262 

degrees of, defined. . .257, 258 

double, origin of. . .259 (note) 

double, to be shunned. . . 263 

errors in use of 262-264 

forms of 258,259 

irregular 2C0, 261 

when adverb used 258, 259 

L which form preferred 259 

\ is what 48 

\ the modified is what 48 

f attribute 50 

(subjective) 50 (note) 

object 48 

[ objective 54 

j definition 102,133 

( treatment of 102-132 

Compound Attribute Complement 50 

Compound Object Complement 48 

Compound Personal Pronouns. 172, 248 & note 

Compound Predicate, defined 38 

Compound Relative Pronouns 173, 249 

f changed to complex.. 138, 139 

Compound J contracted 137, 138 

Sentence, I defined 132, 133 

[ treatment of 132-139 

Compound Subject, defined 38 

Condition Clauses without conjunction. 116 

_ . ( definition of 273 

Conjuga- \ formgof 2792g9 

tion, ) 

< of the verb be. 284-2 c 6 

Conjunction a, definition of 37, 38, 200 

co-ordinate. 200, 201 



1 



f classes, 



Conjunc- 
tions, 



co-or- 
dinate , 



subordinate 200, 202 

adversative, 

132, 134, 201 & note 

alternative, 

132, 134, 201 & note 



336 



Index. 



Conjunc- 
tions 

(cont.), 



Conjunctive 
Adverbs, 



Connect- 
ives, 



co-or- 
dinate, 



.1 



subor- 
dinate, 



PAGE 

co-or- l copulative, 
dinate, S 132, 134, 201 & note 
co-ordinate connect sen- 
tences and paragraphs, 

200 (note) 

scheme for review 215 

are what 189 & note 

offices of 106, 110-113 

apt ones to be chosen 208 

adversative 201 

alternative 201 

copulative 201 

errors in use of 208-210 

in correlation 207 

introductory 200 (note) 

of adjective 

clauses 201 

of adverb clauses, 

201, 202 
^ of noun clauses. 202 

Consonants, classes of 5, 6 

Contraction of Sentences 99-101, 137, 138 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions 200 

Copulative, meaning of. .132, 134, 201 (note) 

Copula, what 50 

Correlatives, errors in use of 208, 209 

I) of the ed of verbs in past tense, 

274 (note) 
D of the ed of past participles. .274 (note) 

Dare, without s form 304 

Dash the 330 

Declarative Sentence, defined.. 85 

f defined 246 

of interrogative pronouns. 249 

of nouns 246 

of personal pronouns. .247, 248 

of relative pronouns 249 

Degree, adverbs of 188 

Descriptive Style 151, 152, 155 

Diminution, degrees of 259 

Dia- j a, what 9 

gram, ' may be omitted preface, 24 

Do, idiomatic use of 211 (note) 

Each \ construction of 58 

other, < with two or more... 250 (note) 
Ed of past tense and participle. 274 (note) 



Declen- 
sion, 



PAGE 

Either and neither, pronouns and con- 
junctions, with two or more . .250 (note) 

Either may be used for each 251 (note) 

Elocution, object of 2 

( defined 167 

Energy, -j illustration of 165, 166 

' secured how 167, 168 

English Grammar, definition of 2 

Epigrams are what 87 (note) 

Evidence distinguished from Cause, 

113 (note) 

/ definition of 85 

I order of words in 99 



Exclam- 
atory 
Sentences. 



Expan- 
sion, 

Explan- 
atory 
Modifier, 



of absolute phrases 142 

of infinitive phrases 143 

of participles 142 

of sentences 99, 100 

definition of 57 

punctuation of 59 

' antithesis 136 (note) 

Figures metaphor 45 (note), 158 

of j metonymy 165 

Speech, personification. 87 (note), 232 
, simile, or comparison ... 156 

First two, etc 251 (note) 

Force (see Energy). 

For to 283 (note) 



defined 227,J 



j distinguished from sex... 228 

_ _ ! of names of animals 231 

Gender, i - , . . , noi 

' of what importance 231 

I of pronouns, errors in 233 

L used in personification 232 

Gender Forms 228-233 

Genders, the three defined 228 

Had better, rather, sooner 290 (note) 

Hand in hand, construction of, 

46 (note) 

Have written, history of 290 

He or one after the indefinite one, 

250 (note) 

Humor, in style 162 

Hyphen, use of '. 31 ' 

Idea distinguished from object ...'.,,. .• 



Index. 



337 



:f! 



Infinitive 
(the), 



PAGE 

for even if, although 117 

, for whether 204 (note) 

■*' I omission of 116 

[ variety of uses 204 

Imagery, see Figures of Speech. 

Imperative J definition of 85 

Sentence, ( order of words in 98 

In and into distinguished 197 (note) 

In case that, construction of 126 (note) 

r definition of... 102, 133-135 
Independent J joined without con- 

Clanses, junction 135 

[ punctuated 1C5, 136 

Independent Expressions, punctuated ... 83 

Indirect, or Dative, Object 62 

Inference, expressed by an independ- 
ent clause 132, 133, 135 

and assumed subject 

after/o?* 76 

definition of 272 

double nature of 74, 75 

old dative of 283 (note) 

use of present perfect 
after past indicative, 

300 & note 
. why called infinitive. . . 74 

■ after a preposition 76 

as adjective 76 

as adjective modifier. 74, 75 
as adverb modifier. . .74, 75 
as attribute comple- 
ment 75, 76 

as explanatory modifier, 77 
as object complement, 

76, 269 
as objective comple- 
ment 77, 268 

as subject 75 

cleft or split 191 (note) 

does not with the noun 

form a clause. . .78 (note) 
expansion into clauses, 143 

I independent 79 

In order that, construction of 126 

Interjections 37, 38, 82 

Interrogation Point, use of 85, 131, 325 



Infinitive 
Phrase, 



Interrogative j 
Pronouns, / 



Language, 



declension 249 

definition 170, 172 

list 173 

Interrogative j definition of 85 

Sentences, ( order of words in 97, 98 

Intransitive Verbs, definition 187, 189 

Introductory Words 59 

Invitations, form of 362 

f definition of 187, 189 

Irregular J inflections of 280 

Verb3, 1 list of 275-279 

[ persistence of 279 

f for a clause 172 (note) 

idiomatic use of , 
-B, -j 77, 125, 127, 230 (note) 

use for animal 3 and children. . . 231 

I vague 127 (note) 

It is me, him, etc 252 (note) 

Just as, construction of Ill 

definition of 2 

made up of words 1,2 

natural 1, 2 

[ word 1,2 

Last two, etc 251 (note) 

Lay and lie 294 

Less, the final s of, and lesser. . .259 (note) 

r equaling that not 202 

Lest, \ various uses of 204 

I- with noun clause 202 

Letters, the alphabet 5-7 

body of 317 

conclusion of 318 

heading of 314 

illustration of 320-322 

introduction of 315, 316 

parts of 3l3 

superscription of 319 

Letter-Writing 313-322 

Loose Sentence 313 

Many a, explanation of 71 & note 

Manner, adverbs of 188 

Masculine Gender distinguished 228 

Masculine Pronoun, use of 231 

May 275 (note), 284 

j definition of.. .45 (uote), 156 



Letters, 



Metaphor, 



< illustrations of . . . .45, 153 



388 



Index. 



Modifiers, 



PAGE 

Methinks 277 (2d note) 

__ , j definition of 165 

Metonymy, \ iIlustrations of ,„ 

Mine, thine, of mine, etc 247 (2d note) 

Mode is what 271, 272 

'imperative. 271,272 
indicative.. 271, 272 
classes, -j potential.. .271, 272 
subjunctive, 

271, 272 

definitions of 272 

' i imperative, no 2d and 

3d persons. . .282 (2d note) 
indicative, uses of. . .290-299 
potential omitted. 281 (note) 
subjunctive, 

282 (note), 296-299 

Modifications^ definition 217 & note, 218 

Modified Complement 48 

definition 23 

different rank 24 (note) 

explanatory, punctua- 

[ tion 59 

Must 275 (note), 284 

Myself, explanatory 60, 239 

N, Saxon ne, the negative particle. 188 (note) 

Narrative Style 159, 162 

Natural Language 1, 2 

Need, without s form 304 

Negation by adverbs 188 (note) 

Negatives, double 192 & note 

No and yes, sentence- words 188 (note) 

No body (or one) else's 251 (note) 

Nominative Forms, eight 252 

Noun a, definition of 13, 17'0 

abstract .'. 171 

as adjective modifiers . . 57 
as adverb modifiers .... 62 

cases of 234, 236 

classes of 171 

Nouns, -J collective 171 

common and proper, 

169, 171 & note 

declension 234, 246 

gender of 227-233 

, number, kinds of 218 



Nouns 
(cont.~), 



Noun 
Clauses, 



PAGE 

person of 233, 236 

roots of 170 (note) 

scheme for general review . 255 
as attribute complement, 123, 125 
as explanatory modifer, 123, 125 
as object complement. .123, 124 
as principal term of prepo- 
sitional phrase, 123, 126 

as subject 123, 124 

connectives of 202 

contraction of 128, 129 

definition of 123 

position of 127, 128 

punctuation of 127 

explanatory (apposi- 

tive) 57 

explanatory of a sen- 
tence 58 

possessive 57 

C definition of 218 

kinds of 218 

of noun agreeing with 

adjective 263, 264 

of nouns determined . . 226 
^ of verbs shows what. . . 273 

O and oh distinguished 42 

Object and Object Complement distin- 
guished 187, 189 (note) 

Object, indirect 62 

Object, indirect, made subject 269 

- becoming subject... 267, 268 

compound 48 

definition of 48 

retained after verb in 



Noun 
Modifier, 



Number, 



Object Com- 
plement, 



passive 269 

Objective Forms, seven 252 

f an infinitive phrase. .77, 268 

a participle 68, 69, 268 

becoming an attribute 

complement 268 

definition of 53, 54 

extended beyond i t s 
factitive sense. 68 (2d note) 

in placo o2 possessive sign 242 

not always indicating possession. 245 
Of mine, etc 247 (2d note) 



Objective 
Complement, 



Of 



Index. 



339 



Only, 



Parsing, 



PAGE 

On condition that 126 (note) 

One j syntax of 238 

another, I with two or more. 250 (note) 

position of 191 

syntax of 33 

Order (words j transposed 91-99 

and phrases), 1 nsnal 89-91 

Other, misuse of 264 

Ought 275 (note), 296, 300 

I composition of 158-168 
definition of* 158, 159 
topics and subtopics of. 158 
unity of...., 162,167 

Paragraphing, exercises in 156-168 

Parallel Construction 142 (note), 168 

Parenthesis, marks of 83, 329 

Parenthetical Clauses, punctuation 136 

f definition of 239 

first step in 22 

models for written, 

46, 240, 261, 294, 295 

- adjectival 64 

as adjective modifiers 67 

as attribute complements.. .67, 68 

as mere adjectives 71 

as mere nouns 71 

as objective complements, 68, 268 

as prepositions 194 

as principal word in a phrase, 

69, 70 

definition of 65, 272, 273 

expansion of 142 

forms of .' 288 

in independent phrases 71 

misuse of < 72, 73 

modified by a and the. .246 (note) 
modified by a possessive, 

246 & note 
nounal, called gerunds, in- 
finitives, verbal nouns, 

65 & 66 (note) 

place of 72, 73 

punctuation of 72 

„ used in slurring 158 

Passive Voice, idiomatic constructions, 

269, 270 



Parti- 
ciples, 



r 



PAGE 

Period, use of 9, 14, 323 

Periodic Sentence, illustrated, sent. 3.. 141 
forms.. 233-235, 272, 230 (note), 
303, 304 
Person, -j of a noun or pronoun. .234, 235 

of a verb 273 

^ why regarded in grammar. 236 

Personification, the figure, 

87 (note), 232, 336 

Persons, the three defined 234, 235 

Per- j clearness of expression, 

spicuity, I seen in extracts 150-168 

absolute 81, 82 

adjective and adverb 31 

as prepositions 195 

complex and compound. . . 40 

definition of 31, 32 

infinitive 74-82, 143 

interchange with clauses, 

Phrases, \ 142, 143 

interchange with words ... 36 

participial 67, 82, 91 

position of 35 

prepositional 1 . .31-36 

punctuation of 34 

used independently 81, 82 

verb 21 & note 

Place, adverbs of 188 

Plural Number 218 

' ending, origin 219 (note) 

foreign forms of 221 

formed irregularly 219, 220 

formed regularly 218 

form same as singular 224 

forms of verbs 303 

forms treated as singular. . 224 

no form for 224 

■{ of compound words. . . 221, 222 

of letters, figures, etc 223 

of proper names 222 

some originally singular. . . 225 

some words always 224, 225 

two forms with different 

meaning 223 

without singular of like 
meaning , 225 



Plural, 



340 



Index. 



Pos- 
sessive 
Ending, 



Predi- 
cate, 



PAGE 

• added to explanatory word, 244 

ambiguity avoided by 245 

attached to the adjective, 

243 (note) 

confined to what 242 

error respecting 240 (note) 

errors in use of 243, 245 

of for 242 

of compound names 242 

origin of 240 (note) 

when omitted ,238, 241 

■ when pronounced es 241 

" adjective defined 50 

a verb or contains one 22 

compound 37, 38 

definition of 3, 8, 49, 50 

modified 27,28 

noun defined 50 

of two or more words 10 

Preposition a, defined 31, 32, 194 

becoming adverbs 195 

ending a sentence 198 (note) 

ending in ing 194 

errors in use of 197-199 

list of 194 

two before a noun ... 198 (note) 
where sometimes found ... 104 
with verb before a noun, 

198 (note) 

Prononn a, defined 13, 171 

' agreement 305-307 

Nom. and Obj. forms. . . 252 
• adjective.. 170, 172 
interrogative, 

170, 172 
personal, ' 

169, 170, 172 
relative... 170, 172 

declension of 247-249 

denote relations. . .171 (note) 
errors in use of, 

174-180, 251-254 

need of 13 

number 218 

scheme for review 256 

, vagueness of 171 (note) 



Preposi- 
tions, 



Pronouns, 



classes, - 



Pronouns 
(Adjec- 
tive), 



Pronouns 
(Interroga- 
tive), 



Pronouns 
(Personal), 



PAGE 

a (day) or two 250 (note) 

all, both, and whole be- 
fore of 250 (note) 

any body (or one) else's, 

etc 251 (note) 

declension of 247-250 

definition of 170, 172 

demonstrative 173 (note) 

distributive 173 (note) 

each other, with two or 

more 250 (note) 

either, neither t with two 

or more 250 (note) 

either for each 251 (note) 

first two, last three, etc., 

251 (note) 
he, etc. after indefinite 

one 250 (note) 

indefinite 173 (note) 

none in both numbers, 

251 (note) 

ones, plural 250 (note) 

other and than, words 

between 251 (note) 

other tivo, when one of 
three is taken. . .250 (note) 

partial list of 173 

such or so with adjec- 
tives Ot ..250 (note) 

declension 249 

definition 170,172 

list 173 

' avoided when 174, 175 

compound 170, 248 

consistent use of 175 

declension 247, 248 

definition 169, 170, 172 

its, history of 248 (note) 

misuse of them for those, 

175, 176 
my and mine, etc., 

247 (2d note) 

order of 305 

ours, yours, etc., double 
poesessives, 

247 (2d note) 



Index. 



341 



Pronouns 
(Personal) 

{pont.), 



Pronouns 
(Relative), 



PAGE 

f use of compound, 

248 (2d note) 

used needlessly 175 

we hardly plural of 7, 

247 (note) 

we instead of /. 234 

ye has given way to you, 

247 (3d note) 

agreement of 305, 306 

compound 170, 249 

declension 249 

definition 170, 172 

discriminated in use 176 

omitted when 105 (note) 

same with same anteced- 
ent 177 

that hi restrictive clauses, 

177 (2d note) 
that instead of ivho and 

ivhich 177, 178 

what misused for that, 

176 & note 
who and ivhich restric- 
tive and unrestrictive, 

177 & 2d note 
with omitted anteced- 
ents 105,106, 176 

141 (note) 

Punctua- i exercises in 324-331 

tion •< summary of rules for, 
Marks, ' 323-331 

Qualities of Style, illustrated 150-168 

Question, direct and indirect 131 

Quotation Marks, use of 130, 131, 331 

j- capitalization of 130 

definition of 130 

direct 130, 131 

indirect 130, 131 

. punctuation of 130, 131 

Quoth 277 (note) 

r definition 187, 189 

Regular 

Verbs, 



Puna . 



Quotations, 



increasing 279 

inflections of 280 



Relative Clauses, position 178 

Result, clauses of 112 (note) 



Sentence 

(the), 



Sentences 



form, 



mean- 
ing, 



PAGE 

Review Questions, 11, 30, 47, 63, 64, 89, 
101, 122, 146, 147, 213-215, 255, 256, 

265, 266,309-313 

Review of Sentence, scheme for 148 

Satire 162 

Semicolon, rules for 136, 326 

balanced 136 (note) 

contracted 99-101, 137, 138 

defined 3, 7 

expanded 99, 100 

loose 313 

I period 313 

i complex 102, 133 

< compound.. 132, 133 
( simple 102, 133 

{declarative ... .84, 85 
exclamatory.... 85 
imperative 85 
interrogative . .84, 85 

Set and sit 295 

Shall and will 275 (note), 301-303 

Should and would 301-303 

Similei or comparison, defined and 

illustrated 156 

Simple j definition of 102, 133 

Sentences, I treatment of 7-101 

Since, various uses of 201, 202, 204 

Singular Number 218 

So . . . as, construction of 112 

Some body (or one) else's 251 (note) 

Sounds and Letters ^ — 4-6 

(figures of 155 

Speech, -j mechanism of 4,5 

Spelling, rules for 258 

argumentative 164, 167 

definition implied . . . .151-198 

descriptive 152, 155 

illustrations 153-168 

narrative 159, 162 

qualities of, seen ".150-168 

assumed, what 74 

assumed, changed to pre- 
vent ambiguity 245 

compound 37, 38 

defined 8 

» determined how 11 



Style, 



Subject, 



342 



Index. 



Tense, 



Tenses, 



Than, 



PAGE 

Subject (cont.), modified, or logical .... 23 

Subjunc- / definition of 271, 272 

tive ■< disappearing. 282 (note) 

Mode, I uses of 296-299 

Subordinate Conjunctions 200, 202 

Subordinate Connectives 201, 202 

Synecdoche, or metonymy 165 

Synopsis is what 273 

Syntax,of one another 238 

defined 271,273 

future, how used 292 

future perfect, how used. . 293 

past, how used 292 

past perfect, how used 293 

present, how used 292, 300 

present perfect, how used, 

292, 293 

(defined 271-273 
emphatic form of 234 
errors in use of 299-301 
conjunctive adverb 112 

errors in use of 209, 210 

followed by adjective, 

252 & note, 253 

replaced by but, etc 209 

use after comparatives. . . . 209 
with me after it, 

252 (2d note) 

Than whom 253 (note) 

That and this, adjectives, plurals, 

257 (note) 

That and this j declension 249 

(Adj. Pro.), 1 reference 179 

with cause clause 205 

with noun clause, 

123-126, 202, 205 
with purpose clause, 

116, 202, 205 
That, Conj. ±dv., degree clause, 

112, 202, 205 
distinguished from who 

and which 176, 178 

for who and which . . 177, 178 
generally restrictive, 

177 (note) 
preposition follows 104 



That 
(Conj.) 



That 
(Rel. Pr.), 



The 



The 



the ■ 



PAGE 

f an adjective 182-184 

J /distinguishes what 183 

I omitted when 183 

[ repeated wheu 184 

j construction of . .112, 113 
1 explanation of,112 (note) 

The one, the other 179 

This 179, 249, 257 (note) 

Thought, how expressed 2, 3 

Three times four is twelve 306 

construction of 74 

expressing relation 74 

extension of 283 (note) 

no part of 283 (note) 

not expressed 81 

position of 191 & note 

without relation 74, 75 

Transitive j definition of 187, 189 

Verbs, ' conjugated passively 287 

Unity of paragraphs 162, 167 

Unless {= if not) 115 

Usage preface, 250 (note) 



To with 
infini- 
tive, 



Variety, 



how secured t ]C5 



illustrations of 1 53-1 68 

Verb a, defined 20, 189 

( an auxiliary 274 

Verb Be, -J conjugation of 284-286 

' derivation of 284 (note) 

Verb-Phrases 21 (note) 

irregular.. .187-189 



Verbs 

(classes), 



Verbs, 



form. 

1 regular.... 187, 189 

intransitive, 

187, 189 
transitive, 187, 189 
a modern passive progres- 
sive form 287, 288 

analysis of compound tense 

forms 290, 291 

as nouns 73 

auxiliary 273, 274 

changing their voice 267-271 

conjugated in progressive 

form 287 

conjugated interrogatively. . 288 

conjugated negatively 289 

I conjugation of 279-289 



Index. 



343 



irregular, 



PAGE 

defective 275 

forms not asserting 20 

improper forms used 295, 296 

indicative and potential with 
subjunctive meaning, 

282 (note) 

inflections of 280 

intran- j definition of . . .187, 189 

sitive, I ma( i e transitive ... 270 

f definition... 188, 189 

! list of 275-279 

persistence of . . .279 
principal parts 

of 275-279 

mode, defined 271, 272 

model for written parsing. . . 294 

number forms 280, SOS, 304 

number of defined 273 

passive form compound . , . . 267 
Verbs periphrastic forms resolved, 
(co?it.), ] 289-291 

person forms 280, 303, 304 

person of 273, 305 

potential auxiliaries 284 

principal parts 274 

redundant 274 

j definition of. . 187, 189 

< increasing 279 

scheme for gen. review 308 

Strong (or Old), Weak (or 

New) 274 (note) 

subjunctive form fading 282 

tense 271-273 

the e and the d of past tense, 

274 (note) 
the e and the cl of past parti- 
ciple 274 (note) 

/ definition of 187, 189 

ransi "^ conjugated passive- 

tive ' ( ly 287 

voice 266 

f attracted 306 

Verbs (agree- J errors in 307 

ment of), | with and in what 303 

with collective noun, 304 



regular, - 



PAGE 

with subjects con- 
nected by and.. 304, 305 
with subjects con- 
nected by or or nor. 305 
with subjects em- 
phatically d i s t i n - 

guished 304 

with subjects naming 

Verbs (agree- same thing 304 

ment of) ■{ with subjects one 
(cont.), affirmative and one 

negative 304, 305 

with subjects follow- 
ing 305 

with subjects pre- 
ceded by e ach y 

every, etc 304 

with subjects varying 

in person 305 

Vocal Consonants 5, 6 

Voice, the voices defined 266 

Voices changed 267-271 

Vowels 5 

f equal to that or whom 105 

'j in origin 105 (note) 

misuse for that 176 (note) 

various uses of. 176 &note, 211 
without antecedent . . . 105, 176 

conjunctive adverb 110, 201 

connecting various clauses. 205 

in adjective clauses 106 

[ interrogative adverb. 189 (note) 

f conjunctive adverb 106, 201 

^ J connecting various clauses. 205 

' | in adjective clauses 106 

t interrogative adverb. 189 (note) 

__ , (repeated 202 (note) 

Wiether, < :,, , T , __. ; , ' 

< with more than two, 202 (note) 

Whether or no 202 (note) 

an adjective 172 (note), 174 

an interrogative pronoun, 

173, 249 

Which, -{ a relative pronoun 172. 249 

clause as antecedent. .172 (note) 

composition of 249 

declension 249 



What, 



When, 



344 



Index. 



TAGE 

Which r in restrictive clauses. 177 (note) 
and \ in unrestrictive clauses ... 177 

Who, I that used for 177, 178 

While, connecting various clauses 206 

Will and would 301-303 

great number of in Eng. . . 12 

spoken words what 4 

transposed order of 91-99 

Words, \ use of determining the 

class of 12 

usual order of 89-91, 97 

written words what 5 



PAGE 

' connected, each making 
good sense with context. 209 

independent 81, 82 

independent nearly 83, 84 

in pairs, punctuation 40 

interchangeable 36 

made prominent 91 

^ modifying sentences .... 83, 84 

Worth , a verb 277 (2d note) 

Ye 247 & 3d note 

Yes and No 188 (note) 

You, verb form with 306 



Words 

and 
Phrases 

Ccont.'), 



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